Spatio-temporal hydrochemistry of two selected Ramsar sites (Rara and Ghodaghodi) of west Nepal.

The present study was conducted in two Ramsar sites, Lake Rara and Lake Ghodaghodi, of the western Nepal covering pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons of 2019 to find out the dynamics of the hydrochemistry. A total of 11 major ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4 +, F-, Cl-, SO4 2-, NO3 -, NO2 -, HCO3 -) along with six on-site parameters (temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen, and turbidity) were sampled in replicates from 18 sites in Lake Rara and 13 sites in Lake Ghodaghodi. Major ions were analyzed using ion chromatography including field and procedural blanks to maintain quality standards, whereas on-site parameters were measured by using standard multi-meter probes. The most dominant cation and anions were Ca2+ and HCO3 - in both lakes indicating rock dominance through carbonate weathering as the primary source of dissolved ions in the lake waters. Further analysis indicated that Rara belongs to Ca(Mg)HCO3 and Ghodaghodi belongs to Ca-HCO3 type. The higher concentrations of Na+ and Cl- during the post-monsoon indicates a possibility of long-range marine transport through monsoon precipitation.

What affects farmers in choosing better agroforestry practice as a strategy of climate change adaptation? An experience from the mid-hills of Nepal.

Determinants for choosing climate change adaptation strategies and selecting improved agroforestry practices have rarely been explored, while numerous studies have been conducted on climate change and agroforestry. This paper discusses; local understanding of climate change, climatic impacts, and factors that affect farmers' choices of adaptation strategies, and agroforestry practices. We focused on three districts located in the mid-hills of Nepal, where farmers were adopting agroforestry practices in two forms; traditional and improved practices. We followed three techniques of social survey; household survey (n = 420), focus group discussions (n = 6), and key informant interviews (n = 24). Almost all farmers of the study areas were experiencing climatic challenges, but only 59.29% of them accepted that the challenges are induced by climate change and, likewise, 55.24% have adopted climate change adaptation measures. Diversifying crop production, shifting farming practices, changing occupation, and emigration were local adaptation strategies. Livelihood improvement, income generation, and food production were the primary motives for adopting agroforestry practices in the study area. Agroforestry as an adaptation measure to climate change was considered secondary by most farmers. Statistical analysis using a logit model revealed that age, education, and habit of growing commercial species significantly influenced farmers adopting climate change adaptation strategies. Likewise, age, education, gender, habit of growing commercial species, and income from tree products significantly influenced the choice of improved agroforestry practices as a better option. Though agroforestry was widely considered a strategy to combat climate change, only some farmers accepted it due to their awareness level. Therefore, education programs such as training, farmer field schools, door-to-door visits, etc., should be intensified to sensitize farmers about climate change and encourage them to adopt improved agroforestry practices. The findings of the study could reinforce local, national, and international allied agencies to design operative actions in the days to come.