Wound closure techniques for spinoplastic surgery: a review of the literature.

PURPOSE: The approach to skin closure in spinal surgery is dependent on surgeon preference and experience. Wound complications, including dehiscence and surgical site infection (SSI), are common following spine surgery. The authors reviewed various wound closure techniques employed in spinal surgery. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted to identify articles comparing wound closure techniques after posterior spinal surgery. Articles that employed experimental or observational cohort study designs and reported rates of SSI, dehiscence, or scarring following spinal surgery were included. RESULTS: Eight studies examining closure techniques of the skin were identified: five retrospective cohort studies and three randomized-controlled trials. No differences in the incidence of SSI were reported based on suture technique, although staples were associated with higher SSI rates in single level spinal fusion, and barbed suture resulted in decreased wound complications. The use of intracutaneous sutures was associated with a higher incidence of wound dehiscence when compared to tension-relieving far-near near-far suture (FNS) and far-near near-far interrupted point (FNP) sutures. However, the latter two also resulted in the highest rates of delayed wound healing (i.e., time to fully heal). Modified Allgöwer-Donati suture (MADS) resulted in smaller scar area when compared to vertical mattress suture. CONCLUSION: Significant differences exist in wound healing when comparing suture techniques in spinal surgery. Surgical staples allow for faster closing time, but are also associated with higher wound complications. Intracutaneous sutures appear to have higher rates of dehiscence compared to vertical mattress suture but display faster wound healing. Future studies are necessary to elucidate contributory factors, including local ischemia and changes in tensile forces. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV.

Volumetric Analysis of a Novel Chimeric Gracilis and Profunda Artery Perforator Flap.

BACKGROUND: The presence of a chimeric gracilis and profunda artery perforator (PAP) flap with a common arterial pedicle has been demonstrated on computed tomography angiography in up to 59% of patients and confirmed in a cadaveric model. Already utilized for head and neck reconstruction by Heredero et al, this novel flap could provide more volume than either flap alone which is advantageous, particularly in patients with sizable defects. The purpose of this study was to determine the average tissue volume that can be utilized from this chimeric flap. METHODS: CT Angiogram imaging studies exhibiting chimeric flap anatomy were reviewed over a 7-year period at a single institution utilizing Visage Version 7.1, a radiology picture archiving and communication system. This software was used to trace the flap pedicles and to capture estimated soft tissue volumes of each respective flap. RESULTS: A total of 31 patients, consisting of 52 lower extremity gracilis and PAP chimeric flaps, underwent tissue volume analysis. The average total volume of soft tissue supplied by the gracilis flap was found to be 70.21 cm3 (standard deviation [SD] = 26.99). The average volume of the PAP flap was 31.73 cm3 (SD = 26.12). The average total volume captured by the chimeric gracilis and PAP flap was 101.94 cm3 (SD = 62.40). CONCLUSION: The potential soft tissue volume that can be harvested from a chimeric gracilis and PAP flap is significantly greater than solitary gracilis or PAP flaps. This chimeric flap may serve as a viable and advantageous reconstructive option for patients requiring large volume soft tissue coverage, particularly if other sizable options are not available.

The PUG Flap: Conjoined Profunda Artery Perforator and Upper Gracilis Flap for Breast Reconstruction.

Abdominal-based free flaps are the mainstay of autologous breast reconstruction; however, the region may not be ideal for patients with inadequate soft tissue or history of abdominal surgery. This case describes the use of a novel conjoined flap based on the profunda artery perforator and upper gracilis pedicles, named the perforator and upper gracilis (PUG) flap. This flap design aims to maximize medial thigh flap volume while ensuring robust tissue perforation. Here, we present our experience with the PUG flap in a breast cancer patient undergoing autologous reconstruction. The patient was a 41-year-old woman seeking nipple-sparing mastectomy and immediate autologous reconstruction with the PUG flap due to limited abdominal tissue availability. The gracilis and profunda artery perforator flaps were elevated using one boomerang-style skin paddle. Once harvested, the flaps were inset with antegrade and retrograde flow off the internal mammary arteries and both respective internal mammary veins. The donor site was closed in a V-Y pattern resulting in a thigh lift-type lift and concealed scar. In conclusion, the boomerang-style PUG flap maximizes medial thigh free tissue transfer volume, offers internal blood flow redundancy, and maintains good cosmesis of the donor site.

Patient Perspectives and Quality of Life after Breast Reconstruction and the Impact of Subsequent Revisions.

There is limited research on the impact of revisional surgery after breast reconstruction on patient experience and postoperative quality of life (QoL). Methods: Patients undergoing mastectomy with immediate implant-based or autologous free-flap breast reconstruction from 2008 to 2020 were reviewed. These patients were categorized by revisions (0-1, 2-3, and 4+) and surveyed on QoL metrics using BREAST-Q and Was It Worth It? (WIWI) questionnaires. BREAST-Q QoL, satisfaction, and WIWI metrics between revision groups were evaluated. Results: Among 252 patients, a total of 150 patients (60%) underwent zero to one revisions, 72 patients (28%) underwent two to three revisions, and 30 patients (12%) underwent four or more revisions. Median follow-up was 6 years (range, 1-11 years). BREAST-Q satisfaction among patients with four or more revisions was significantly lower (P = 0.03), while core QoL domains (chest physical, psychosocial, and sexual well-being) did not significantly differ. Analysis of unplanned reoperations due to complications and breast satisfaction showed no significant difference in QoL scores between groups (P = 0.08). Regarding WIWI QoL metrics, four or more revisions were associated with a higher rate of worse QoL (P = 0.035) and worse overall experience (P = 0.001). Most patients in all revision groups felt it was worthwhile to undergo breast reconstruction (86%), would choose breast reconstruction again (83%), and would recommend breast reconstruction to others (79%). Conclusions: Overall, a majority of patients undergoing revisions after breast reconstruction still have a worthwhile experience. Although reoperations after breast reconstruction do not significantly impact long-term BREAST-Q QoL domains, patients undergoing four or more revisions have significantly lower breast satisfaction, worse QoL, and a postoperative experience worse than expected.

A Scoping Review of Mobile Apps in Plastic Surgery: Patient Care, Trainee Education, and Professional Development.

Over the past 10 years, smartphones have become ubiquitous, and mobile apps serve a seemingly endless number of functions in our everyday lives. These functions have entered the realm of plastic surgery, impacting patient care, education, and delivery of services. This article reviews the current uses of plastic surgery mobile apps, app awareness within the plastic surgery community, and the ethical issues surrounding their use in patient care. Methods: A scoping review of electronically available literature within PubMed, Embase, and Scopus databases was conducted in two waves in November and May 2022. Publications discussing mobile application use in plastic surgery were screened for inclusion. Results: Of the 80 nonduplicate publications retrieved, 20 satisfied the inclusion criteria. Articles acquired from the references of these publications were reviewed and summarized when relevant. The average American Society of Plastic Surgeons evidence rating of the publications was 4.2. Applications could be categorized broadly into three categories: patient care and surgical applications, professional development and education, and marketing and practice development. Conclusions: Mobile apps related to plastic surgery have become an abundant resource for patients, attending surgeons, and trainees. Many help bridge gaps in patient care and surgeon-patient communication, and facilitate marketing and practice development. Others make educational content more accessible to trainees and performance assessment more efficient and equitable. The extent of their impact on patient decision-making and expectations has not been completely elucidated.

A 20-Year Analysis of Medicare Reimbursement for Abdominal Wall Reconstruction (2000 to 2020).

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to evaluate monetary trends in Medicare reimbursement rates for 30 abdominal wall reconstruction surgical procedures over a 20-year period (2000 to 2020). METHODS: The Physician Fee Schedule Look-Up Tool from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services was used for each of the 30 included current CPT codes, and reimbursement data were extracted. Monetary data were adjusted for inflation to 2020 U.S. dollars using changes to the United States consumer price index. The R 2 values for the average annual percentage change and the average total percentage change in reimbursement were calculated based on these adjusted trends for all included procedures. RESULTS: After adjusting for inflation, the average reimbursement for all procedures decreased by 17.1% from 2000 to 2020. The greatest mean decrease was observed for CPT code 49568 (the implantation of mesh or other prosthesis for open incisional or ventral hernia repair or mesh for closure of débridement for necrotizing soft-tissue infection, -34.4%). The only procedure with an increased adjusted reimbursement rate throughout the study period was CPT code 20680 (+3.9%). From 2000 to 2020, the adjusted reimbursement rate for all included procedures decreased by an average of 0.85% each year, with an average R 2 value of 0.78, indicating a stable decline throughout the study period. CONCLUSIONS: Reimbursement rates are declining when adjusted for inflation. Increased awareness of these trends is helpful to maintain access to optimal abdominal reconstruction care in the United States.

Operating in an Opioid Crisis: A Temporal Analysis of Pain Medication Prescribing Practices in Plastic Surgery.

BACKGROUND: In response to the opioid epidemic, the United States declared a public health emergency in 2017. We evaluated pain medication prescribing practices among plastic and reconstructive surgeons, assessing pain medication prescription rates and opioid-related mortality both nationally and regionally within the United States. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of Medicare Part D prescriber data among plastic surgeons from 2013 through 2017 was conducted. Pain medications were categorized as opioid and nonopioid medications. Trends in surgeon prescribing habits were evaluated using the Cochrane-Armitage trend test. RESULTS: A total of 708,817 pain medication claims were identified: 612,123 claims (86%) were for opioid pain medications and 96,694 claims (14%) were for nonopioid pain medications. Total pain medication claims decreased from 44% of all medications in 2013 to 37% in 2017 (P < 0.001). Opioid medications decreased from 37% of total medication claims to 32% (P < 0.001). The overall opioid prescription rate fell from 1.53 claims per beneficiary in 2013 to 1.32 in 2017 (P < 0.001). Nonopioid pain medications decreased from 7% in 2013 to 6% in 2017 (P < 0.001); nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug claims increased by 44%. The prescription rate of nonopioid medications decreased from 2.40 claims per beneficiary in 2013 to 2.32 in 2017 (P < 0.001). An overall increase in opioid-related mortality was observed. Trends in pain medication prescriptions varied significantly among US regions and divisions. CONCLUSIONS: Plastic surgeons are prescribing less opioids and relying more on nonopioid pain medications. Increased adoption of multimodal pain treatment approaches among surgeons is a likely explanation for this trend in face of the current opioid crisis.

Can Montgomery tubercles impact aesthetic 3D nipple-areolar complex tattooing? An anatomical, quantitative analysis of breast cancer patients.

PURPOSE: We aimed to establish a relationship between the amount of Montgomery tubercles (MTs) per nipple-areolar complex (NAC) given patient characteristics such as age, BMI, menopausal status, race/ethnicity, and NAC size to better inform current 3D NAC tattooing practices. METHODS: Preoperative photographs of patients pursuing breast reconstruction after mastectomy in 2010 through 2018 were reviewed. The number of MTs on each native NAC was quantified. The impact of patient factors on the quantity of MTs was evaluated via Pearson correlation and bivariate analyses. RESULTS: Two hundred and eleven patients (399 breasts) were reviewed. On average, patients had 5.0 ± 5.2 MTs (range, 0-25 MTs). Number of MTs did not correlate with patient age, BMI, or NAC size. Premenopausal females were more likely than postmenopausal females to have a greater number of MTs per breast (p-value = 0.0183). CONCLUSIONS: Postmastectomy patients desiring a more "youthful" NAC may consider additional MTs when pursuing 3D NAC tattooing.

Management of Free Fillet Flap Transfers in Large Oncologic Resections.

The fillet flap is a reliable flap for reconstruction of large deformities following oncologic resection. It provides healthy, nonradiated tissue for coverage with the secondary benefit of preserving other potential donor sites for reconstruction. Methods: A retrospective review of the medical records of eight patients who underwent fillet flap reconstruction from 2013 to 2021 at Mayo Clinic, Arizona, were analyzed. Results: Eight patients who underwent four hemipelvectomies, three forequarter amputations, and one below the knee amputation were identified. Patients' ages ranged between 24 and 66 years. All indications for oncologic ablation were curative. Defect sizes ranged from 16 × 20 to 30 × 60 cm. Four pedicled flaps and four free fillet flaps were performed. Indication for free fillet flap was tumor invasion of local vascular structures. There was no flap loss in the pedicled group (follow-up ranged from 1 to 9 years), and one of four free fillet flaps had a successful long-term outcome (follow-up 36 months). Conclusions: Successful free fillet flap reconstruction in the setting of oncologic resection is a difficult task to achieve. Changes to the management of case 3F allowed for a successful transfer. Immediate elevation and anastomosis of the flap before oncologic resection, large caliber recipient vessels and isolation from the zone of injury, protection of the anastomosis, and delay in flap inset all contributed to flap survival. It is our belief that applying these general considerations in large oncologic resections with free fillet flap transfer may aid in successful flap transfer and improve its survival odds.

Outcomes of Lymphovenous Anastomosis for Lower Extremity Lymphedema: A Systematic Review.

Lymphovenous anastomosis (LVA) is a microsurgical treatment for lymphedema of the lower extremity (LEL). This study systematically reviews the most recent data on outcomes of various LVA techniques for LEL in diverse patients. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, and Scopus databases to extract articles published through June 2021. Studies reporting data on objective postoperative improvement in lymphedema and/or subjective improvement in quality of life for patients with LEL were included. Extracted data comprised demographics, number of patients and lower limbs, duration of symptoms before LVA, surgical technique, duration of follow-up, and objective and subjective outcomes. Results: A total of 303 articles were identified and evaluated, of which 74 were ultimately deemed eligible for inclusion in this study, representing 6260 patients and 2554 lower limbs. The average patient age ranged from 22.6 to 76.14 years. The duration of lymphedema before LVA ranged from 12 months to 11.4 years. Objective rates of improvement in lymphedema ranged from 23.3% to 100%, with the greatest degree of improvement seen in patients with early-stage LEL. Conclusions: LVA is a safe and effective technique for the treatment of LEL of all stages. Several emerging techniques and variations may lead to improved patient outcomes.

Characterization of National Medical Societies' Accessible Resources to Support Underrepresented Minority and Female Trainees.

Importance: The lack of racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in medicine has been recognized as problematic, but the question of what medical educators and societies are doing to rectify and promote representation of historically marginalized groups persists. Objective: To examine what easily accessible resources are offered by medical and surgical societies to support women and individuals in minority groups that are underrepresented in medicine (URiM). Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study evaluated transparent and accessible resources on the webpages of societies recognized by the Council of Medical Specialty Societies. Data collection and analysis were performed from September 1, 2021, to November 1, 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: The society websites were searched for official diversity statements, diversity and women task forces or committees, and mentorship and scholarship opportunities for URiM and female trainees. The primary outcome was accessible resources in the form of financial support (scholarships) and mentorship for URiM and female trainees. Results: Of the 45 societies included in the analysis, 38 (84.4%) have published diversity statements. All but 6 societies (86.7%) have a dedicated diversity task force, committee, or work group. Twenty societies (44.4%) have a committee specifically for women or include women in diversity task force initiatives. Seventeen societies (37.8%) offer minority-specific mentorship, 15 (33.3%) offer scholarships targeted toward URiM trainees, 10 (22.2%) provide gender-specific mentorship, and 8 (17.8%) offer scholarship opportunities for female trainees. Conclusions and Relevance: Although most of the societies included in this study acknowledge the importance of diversity in medicine, less than half of these societies offer readily accessible scholarships or mentorship opportunities to URiM and female applicants.

Long-term breast and nipple sensation after nipple-sparing mastectomy with implant reconstruction: Relevance to physical, psychosocial, and sexual well-being.

BACKGROUND: The effect of postoperative sensation on quality-of-life (QoL) following nipple-sparing mastectomy (NSM) with implant-based reconstruction is not well described. We evaluated the impact of breast and nipple sensation on patient QoL by using BREAST-Q. METHODS: Patients undergoing NSM with implant reconstruction from 2008 to 2020 were mailed a survey to characterize their postoperative breast and nipple sensation. BREAST-Q metrics were compared between totally numb patients and those with sensation. RESULTS: A total of 349 patients were included. Overall, 131 (38%) responded; response rates regarding breast and nipple sensation were 36% (N = 124/349) and 34% (N = 117/349). Median time from surgery to survey completion was 6 years. The majority had bilateral procedures (101, 77%), including direct-to-implant (99, 76%) and tissue expander (32, 24%) reconstruction. Regarding breast sensation, the majority of patients reported their reconstructed breasts as totally numb (47, 38%) or much less sensation than before surgery (59, 48%). Regarding nipple sensation, the majority of patients reported their nipples were totally numb (67, 57%) or had much less sensation than before surgery (37, 32%). Total numbness of reconstructed breasts resulted in a significantly lower chest physical well-being (mean score: 73.5 vs. 81.2, respectively, P = 0.048). Total numbness of postoperative nipple(s) resulted in significantly lower chest physical (mean score: 74.8 vs. 85.2, respectively, P = 0.007), psychosocial (mean score 77.4 vs. 84.4, respectively, P = 0.041), and sexual well-being (mean score: 55.7 vs. 68.3, respectively, P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Long-term breast and nipple sensation are significantly diminished after NSM with implant reconstruction. Patients with preserved sensation experience better physical, psychosocial, and sexual well-being.

Seldom one and done: Characterizing rates of reoperation with direct-to-implant breast reconstruction after mastectomy.

BACKGROUND: Limited data exist outlining reoperations after direct-to-implant (DTI), tissue expander (TE) and autologous free-flap breast reconstruction. METHODS: Patients undergoing mastectomy with reconstruction from 2008 to 18 were reviewed. Patient factors, surgical techniques, planned, unplanned, and total reoperations were analyzed. RESULTS: Among 544 total patients, the majority underwent DTI (294, 54%) or TE (176, 32%); 74 (14%) received autologous free-flaps. Majority of DTI patients (55%) underwent subsequent reoperations. Compared to autologous tissue, DTI had less patients undergo additional surgery (76% vs. 55%, P = 0.001). Incidence of total unplanned reoperations did not significantly differ between reconstructive groups. The rate of unplanned reoperations due to complications was lowest for DTI (39%) when compared to TE (48%) and autologous (55%, P = 0.015). Compared to TE, DTI carried a lower risk for ≥2 total reoperations (OR = 0.21, 95% CI 0.13-0.33, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Seldom "one and done," additional surgery after DTI remains significant.

Diagnosis of Primary Scrotal Lymphedema Using 99mTc-Sulfur Colloid Lymphoscintigram: Correlation With MR Lymphangiogram.

ABSTRACT: We report a case of a 19-year-old man who presented with severe scrotal swelling. His medical history was notable for severe global edema at birth. Most areas of swelling had resolved by adolescence with exception of the scrotum and the left lower extremity. 99mTc-filtered sulfur colloid lymphoscintigraphy of the lower extremities demonstrated prominent dermal backflow into the superficial scrotum and thighs, which were confirmed on the SPECT/CT images, and correlated with findings on MR lymphangiogram. Lymphoscintigram and MR lymphangiogram may provide complementary information to aid diagnosis and management of primary scrotal lymphedema.

Procedural Trends in Medicare Reimbursement and Utilization for Breast Reconstruction: 2000-2019.

PURPOSE: Development of appropriate reimbursement models for breast reconstruction in the United States requires an understanding of relevant economic trends. The purpose of this study is to evaluate longitudinal patterns in Medicare reimbursement for frequently performed breast reconstruction procedures between 2000 and 2019. METHODS: Reimbursement data for 15 commonly performed breast reconstruction procedures were analyzed using the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Physician Fee Schedule Look-Up Tool for each Current Procedural Terminology code. By utilizing changes to the US consumer price index, monetary data were adjusted for inflation to 2019 US dollars. Inflation-adjusted trends were used to calculate average annual and total percentage changes in reimbursement over time. RESULTS: From 2000 to 2019, average adjusted reimbursement for all procedures fell by 13.32%. All procedures demonstrated a negative adjusted reimbursement rate other than immediate insertion of breast prosthesis, which increased by 55.37%. The largest mean decrease was observed in breast reconstruction with other technique (-28.63%), followed by single pedicle transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap (-26.02%), single pedicle transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flap with microvascular anastomosis (-23.33%), latissimus dorsi flap (-19.65%), and free flap reconstruction (-19.36%). CONCLUSIONS: There has been a steady yet substantial decline in Medicare reimbursement for the majority of breast reconstruction procedures over the last 20 years. Given increasing medical costs and the financial uncertainty of the US health care system, an understanding of Medicare reimbursement trends is vital for policymakers, administrators, and physicians to develop agreeable reimbursement models that facilitate growth and economic vitality of breast reconstruction in the United States.