Passive sea ice thickness inference using cryophones.

Mechanical properties of Arctic sea ice can be inferred by observations of in-ice propagation of compressional, shear, and flexural waves. During the 1980s, impulsive signals were generated by a lead ball or sledgehammer dropped onto the sea ice, and the inference required observation of wave speeds. During ICEX20 and ARCEX23, passive cryophone observations were made of naturally occurring compressional wave resonances. Average first-year ice thicknesses during ICEX20 and ARCEX23 were inferred to be 1.3 and 1.6 m, respectively; these are consistent with independent observations and indicate the potential for remote, autonomous monitoring of sea ice thickness.

Walking on snow-covered Arctic sea ice to infer ice thickness.

The ice-covered Arctic Ocean constitutes a unique underwater acoustic waveguide; it is a half-channel, upward refracting environment possessing a rough upper boundary consisting of sea ice of varying thickness. The sea ice itself is an acoustic waveguide, capable of supporting the propagation of compressional and shear waves. In particular, the ice supports compressional wave resonances created by impulsive forces on the upper surface of the ice. During ICEX20 and ICEX22, observations were made of compressional wave resonances excited by hammer drops, as well as by near-impulsive signals generated from the compression of dry snow underfoot while walking on the ice. Results demonstrate that ice thickness can be inferred from compressional wave resonances in the sea ice waveguide using signals generated by walking on the snow-covered ice. Inferred ice thickness estimates were consistent with observations made by magnetic induction and physical measurements in holes drilled through the ice. Average first- and multi-year ice thicknesses were inferred to be 1.1-1.3 m and 2.4-2.5 m, respectively.

Acoustic spectrometry of bubbles in an estuarine front: Sound speed dispersion, void fraction, and bubble density.

Estuaries constitute a unique waveguide for acoustic propagation. The spatiotemporally varying three-dimensional front between the seawater and the outflowing freshwater during both flood and ebb constitutes an interfacial sound speed gradient capable of supporting significant vertical and horizontal acoustic refraction. The collision of these two water masses often produces breaking waves, injecting air bubbles into the water column; the negative vertical velocities of the denser saltwater often subduct bubbles to the bottom of these shallow waveguides, filling the water column with a bubbly mixture possessing a significantly lower effective sound speed. A field experiment was carried out in the mouth of Mobile Bay, Alabama in June 2021 to characterize estuarine bubble clouds in terms of their depth-dependent plume structure, frequency-dependent sound speed and attenuation, bubble size distribution, bubble number density, and void fraction. Results demonstrate that sound speed in the bubbly liquid consistently falls below the intrinsic sound speed of bubble-free water; specifically, the bubbly liquid 1.3 m below the surface in a front in this environment possesses effective sound speeds, void fractions, and bubble number densities of approximately 750 m/s, 0.001%, and 2 × 106 bubbles/m3, respectively.

Underwater sound generated by motor vehicle traffic in an underwater tunnel.

Underwater acoustic and environmental measurements were made adjacent to the Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel in the James River in Virginia during a field experiment in April 2019. The observed sound field exhibited short time-scale and tidal time-scale variability due to passing marine vessels and tidally driven currents in the estuary; most interestingly, the sound field exhibited variability on a diurnal time scale, closely correlated to the temporal distribution of vehicular traffic in the underwater tunnel. During morning and evening rush-hour traffic periods, the amplitude of the traffic-induced underwater signal exceeded 10 dB at 40 Hz. Additional physics-based modeling and direct observation are required to verify the hypothesis that the signal is associated with the traffic-induced vibration in the tunnel roadbed.

3D acoustic propagation through an estuarine salt wedge at low-to-mid-frequencies: Modeling and measurement.

The estuarine salt wedge presents a dynamic and highly refractive waveguide, the acoustic propagation characteristics of which are controlled by the water column sound speed gradient and boundary interactions. Acoustically, the salt wedge consists of two isospeed layers separated by a thin, three-dimensional (3D), high-gradient layer. The behavior of a broadband (500-2000 Hz) acoustic field under the influence of an estuarine salt wedge in the Columbia River estuary is explored using two 3D acoustic propagation models: 3D rays and 3D parabolic equation. These model results are compared to data collected during the field experiment. Results demonstrate that the dominant physical mechanism controlling acoustic propagation in this waveguide shifts from 3D bottom scatter in a non-refractive waveguide (before the entrance of the salt wedge) to 3D acoustic refraction with minimal bottom interaction in a refractive waveguide (when the salt wedge occupies the acoustic transect). Vertical and horizontal refraction in the water column and out-of-plane scattering by the bottom are clearly evident at specific narrowband frequencies; however, these mechanisms contribute to, but do not account for, the total observed broadband transmission loss.

Field observation of low-to-mid-frequency acoustic propagation characteristics of an estuarine salt wedge.

The estuarine environment often hosts a salt wedge, the stratification of which is a function of the tide's range and speed of advance, river discharge volumetric flow rate, and river mouth morphology. Competing effects of temperature and salinity on sound speed in this stratified environment control the degree of acoustic refraction occurring along an acoustic path. A field experiment was carried out in the Columbia River Estuary to test the hypothesis: the estuarine salt wedge is acoustically observable in terms of low-to-mid-frequency acoustic propagation. Linear frequency-modulated acoustic signals in the 500-2000 Hz band were transmitted during the advance and retreat of the salt wedge during May 27-29, 2013. Results demonstrate that the salt wedge front is the dominant physical mechanism controlling acoustic propagation in this environment: received signal energy is relatively stable before and after the passage of the salt wedge front when the acoustic path consists of a single medium (either entirely fresh water or entirely salt water), and suffers a 10-15 dB loss and increased variability during salt wedge front passage. Physical parameters and acoustic propagation modeling corroborate and inform the acoustic observations.

Comparisons among ten models of acoustic backscattering used in aquatic ecosystem research.

Analytical and numerical scattering models with accompanying digital representations are used increasingly to predict acoustic backscatter by fish and zooplankton in research and ecosystem monitoring applications. Ten such models were applied to targets with simple geometric shapes and parameterized (e.g., size and material properties) to represent biological organisms such as zooplankton and fish, and their predictions of acoustic backscatter were compared to those from exact or approximate analytical models, i.e., benchmarks. These comparisons were made for a sphere, spherical shell, prolate spheroid, and finite cylinder, each with homogeneous composition. For each shape, four target boundary conditions were considered: rigid-fixed, pressure-release, gas-filled, and weakly scattering. Target strength (dB re 1 m(2)) was calculated as a function of insonifying frequency (f = 12 to 400 kHz) and angle of incidence (θ = 0° to 90°). In general, the numerical models (i.e., boundary- and finite-element) matched the benchmarks over the full range of simulation parameters. While inherent errors associated with the approximate analytical models were illustrated, so were the advantages as they are computationally efficient and in certain cases, outperformed the numerical models under conditions where the numerical models did not converge.

Resonant interaction of acoustic waves with subaqueous bedforms: Sand dunes in the South China Sea.

The large subaqueous sand dunes in the South China Sea are expected to produce the coupling of energy between acoustic normal modes. In this letter, resonant interaction between acoustic propagating modes and subaqueous bedforms are numerically investigated as a function of bedform wavelength, acoustic frequency and bedform packet length. The results demonstrate that bedform wavelength impacts acoustic mode coupling behavior, with the principal transfer of energy occurring between acoustic modes whose eigenvalue difference is equal to the peak value in the bedform wavenumber spectrum. The observed effect of wavelength is greater than that of acoustic frequency and bedform packet length.

Acoustic mode coupling due to subaqueous sand dunes in the South China Sea.

The large subaqueous sand dunes on the upper continental slope of the South China Sea are expected to couple acoustic propagating normal modes. In this letter, the criterion of adiabatic invariance is extended to the case of a waveguide possessing bedforms. Using the extended criterion to examine mode propagation over the bedforms observed in the sand dune field in 2012, results demonstrate that bedforms increase mode coupling strength such that the criterion for adiabatic propagation is exceeded for waveguides with small bedform amplitude to water depth ratios; increasing bedform amplitude enhances mode coupling. Numerical simulations confirm the extended criterion parameterization.

Enhanced acoustic mode coupling resulting from an internal solitary wave approaching the shelfbreak in the South China Sea.

Internal waves and bathymetric variation create time- and space-dependent alterations in the ocean acoustic waveguide, and cause subsequent coupling of acoustic energy between propagating normal modes. In this paper, the criterion for adiabatic invariance is extended to the case of an internal solitary wave (ISW) encountering a sloping bathymetry (i.e., continental shelfbreak). Predictions based on the extended criterion for adiabatic invariance are compared to experimental observations from the Asian Seas International Acoustics Experiment. Using a mode 1 starter field, results demonstrate time-dependent coupling of mode 1 energy to higher adjacent modes, followed by abrupt coupling of mode 5-7 energy to nonadjacent modes 8-20, produces enhanced mode coupling and higher received levels downrange of the oceanographic and bathymetric features. Numerical simulations demonstrate that increasing ISW amplitude and seafloor slope enhance the coupling of energy to adjacent and nonadjacent modes. This enhanced coupling is the direct result of the simultaneous influence of the ISW and its proximity to the shelfbreak, and, compared to the individual effect of the ISW or shelfbreak, has the capacity to scatter 2-4 times the amount of acoustic energy from below the thermocline into the upper water column beyond the shelfbreak in realistic environments.

Observationally constrained modeling of sound in curved ocean internal waves: examination of deep ducting and surface ducting at short range.

A study of 400 Hz sound focusing and ducting effects in a packet of curved nonlinear internal waves in shallow water is presented. Sound propagation roughly along the crests of the waves is simulated with a three-dimensional parabolic equation computational code, and the results are compared to measured propagation along fixed 3 and 6 km source/receiver paths. The measurements were made on the shelf of the South China Sea northeast of Tung-Sha Island. Construction of the time-varying three-dimensional sound-speed fields used in the modeling simulations was guided by environmental data collected concurrently with the acoustic data. Computed three-dimensional propagation results compare well with field observations. The simulations allow identification of time-dependent sound forward scattering and ducting processes within the curved internal gravity waves. Strong acoustic intensity enhancement was observed during passage of high-amplitude nonlinear waves over the source/receiver paths, and is replicated in the model. The waves were typical of the region (35 m vertical displacement). Two types of ducting are found in the model, which occur asynchronously. One type is three-dimensional modal trapping in deep ducts within the wave crests (shallow thermocline zones). The second type is surface ducting within the wave troughs (deep thermocline zones).

Wind-generated ambient noise in a topographically isolated basin: a pre-industrial era proxy.

During the mid-1980s, calibrated measurements of ambient noise and wind speed were made in the Tongue of the Ocean in the Bahamas to quantify the spectra and statistics of wind-generated noise. This deep basin is topographically isolated from the Atlantic Ocean and, therefore, largely acoustically decoupled from the Atlantic Ocean deep sound channel. The quantitative effects of contaminating (non-surface wind-generated) noise sources within the basin were eliminated by careful measurement and robust statistical analysis methodologies. Above 500 Hz, the spectral slopes are approximately -5 dB per octave and independent of wind speed. Below 500 Hz, the ambient noise is no longer a linear function of wind speed. Below 100 Hz and for wind speeds greater than 18.5 knots (kt), the ambient noise is independent of frequency. The minimum observed ambient noise level falls 13 dB below Urick's "light shipping" level at 30 Hz and 2-5 dB below Wenz's sea state zero level through the wind-dominated portion of the spectrum. The basin's geographical isolation and the rigorous measurement and analysis methodologies employed make this two-decade-old data set a reasonable and justified proxy for pre-industrial era ocean noise levels in the 20 Hz to 20 kHz frequency band.

Ocean acidification and its impact on ocean noise: phenomenology and analysis.

Ocean acidification has been observed since the beginning of the industrial era and is expected to further reduce ocean pH in the future. A significant increase in ocean noise has been suggested based upon the percentage change in acoustic absorption coefficient at low frequencies. Presented here is an analysis using transmission loss models of all relevant loss mechanisms for three environments experiencing a significant near-surface pH reduction of 8.1-7.4. Results show no observable change in the shallow water and surface duct environments, and a statistically insignificant change of less than 0.5 dB for all frequencies in the deep water environment.

Broadband acoustic backscatter and high-resolution morphology of fish: measurement and modeling.

Broadband acoustic backscattering measurements, advanced high-resolution imaging of fish morphology using CT scans and phase-contrast x rays (in addition to traditional x rays), and associated scattering modeling using the images have been conducted involving alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), a swimbladder-bearing fish. A greater-than-octave bandwidth (40-95 kHz) signal was used to insonify live, individual, adult alewife that were tethered while being rotated in 1-deg increments over all angles in two planes of rotation (lateral and dorsal/ventral). These data, in addition to providing the orientation dependence of the scattering over a continuous band of frequencies, were also used (after pulse compression) to identify dominant scattering features of the fish (including the skull and swimbladder). The x-ray and CT scan images of the swimbladder were digitized and incorporated into two scattering models: (1) Kirchhoff-ray mode (KRM) model [Clay and Horne, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 96, 1661-1668 (1994)] and (2) conformal-mapping-based Fourier matching method (FMM), which has recently been extended to finite-length bodies [Reeder and Stanton, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 116. 729-746 (2004)]. Comparisons between the scattering predictions and data demonstrate the utility of the CT scan imagery for use in scattering models, as it provided a means for rapidly and noninvasively measuring the fish morphology in three dimensions and at high resolution. In addition to further validation of the KRM model, the potential of the new FMM formulation was demonstrated, which is a versatile approach, valid over a wide range of shapes, all frequencies and all angles of orientation.