Evaluating telehealth for the education and monitoring of lymphoedema and shoulder dysfunction after breast cancer surgery.

PURPOSE: The primary aim of this study was to compare the attendance rates at a group lymphoedema education and same-day individual surveillance appointment between telehealth (TH) and in-person (IP) care for participants following breast cancer (BC) surgery. Secondary aims included evaluating participant satisfaction and costs between the two service models, while also determining the extent of technical issues and clinician satisfaction towards TH. METHODS: Participants following axillary lymph node dissection surgery attended a group lymphoedema education and same-day 1:1 monitoring session via their preferred mode (TH or IP). Attendance rates, satisfaction and costs were recorded for both cohorts, and technical disruption and clinician satisfaction for the TH cohort. RESULTS: Fifty-five individuals participated. All 28 participants who nominated the IP intervention attended, while 22/27 who nominated the TH intervention attended an appointment. Overall reported participant experience was positive with no significant differences between cohorts. All TH appointments were successfully completed. Clinicians reported high satisfaction for delivery of education (median = 4[IQR 4-5]) and individual assessment (median = 4[IQR 3-4]) via TH. Median attendance costs per participant were Australian $39.68 (Q1-Q3 $28.52-$68.64) for TH and Australian $154.26 (Q1-Q3 $81.89-$251.48) for the IP cohort. CONCLUSION: Telehealth-delivered lymphoedema education and assessment for individuals following BC surgery was associated with favourable satisfaction, cost savings and minimal technical issues despite lower attendance than IP care. This study contributes to the growing evidence for TH and its potential applicability to other populations where risk for cancer-related lymphoedema exists.

Do Patient-Reported Upper-Body Symptoms Predict Breast Cancer-Related Lymphoedema: Results from a Population-Based, Longitudinal Breast Cancer Cohort Study.

The objectives of this work were to (i) describe upper-body symptoms post-breast cancer; (ii) explore the relationship between symptoms and upper-body function, breast cancer-related lymphoedema (BCRL), physical activity levels, and quality of life; and (iii) determine whether the presence of upper-body symptoms predicts BCRL. Nine symptoms, upper-body function, lymphoedema, physical activity, and quality of life were assessed in women with invasive breast cancer at baseline (2- to 9-months post-diagnosis; n = 2442), and at 2- and 7-years post-diagnosis. Mann−Whitney tests, unpaired t-tests, and chi-squared analyses were used to assess cross-sectional relationships, while regression analyses were used to assess the predictive relationships between symptoms at baseline, and BCRL at 2- and 7-years post-diagnosis. Symptoms are common post-breast cancer and persist at 2- and 7-years post-diagnosis. Approximately two in three women, and one in three women, reported >2 symptoms of at least mild severity, and of at least moderate severity, respectively. The presence of symptoms is associated with poorer upper-body function, and lower physical activity levels and quality of life. One or more symptoms of at least moderate severity increases the odds of developing BCRL by 2- and 7-years post-diagnosis (p < 0.05). Consequently, improved monitoring and management of symptoms following breast cancer have the potential to improve health outcomes.

The Effect of Exercise for the Prevention and Treatment of Cancer-Related Lymphedema: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of exercise on (i) the prevention of cancer-related lymphedema (CRL) and (ii) the treatment of CRL, lymphedema-associated symptoms, and other health outcomes among individuals with CRL. METHODS: An electronic search was undertaken for exercise studies measuring lymphedema and involving individuals at risk of developing or with CRL. The Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality scale was used to assess study quality, and overall quality of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. Meta-analyses were performed to evaluate effects of exercise on CRL incidence, existing CRL status, lymphedema-associated symptoms, and health outcomes. RESULTS: Twelve studies ( n = 1955; 75% moderate-high quality) and 36 studies ( n = 1741; 58% moderate-high quality) were included in the prevention and treatment aim, respectively. Relative risk of developing CRL for those in the exercise group compared with the nonexercise group was 0.90 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.72 to 1.13) overall and 0.49 (95% CI, 0.28 to 0.85) for those with five or more lymph nodes removed. For those with CRL in the exercise group, the standardized mean difference (SMD) before to after exercise of CRL was -0.11 (95% CI, -0.22 to 0.01), and compared with usual care postintervention, the SMD was -0.10 (95% CI, -0.24 to 0.04). Improvements after intervention were observed for pain, upper-body function and strength, lower-body strength, fatigue, and quality of life for those in the exercise group (SMD, 0.3-0.8; P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Findings support the application of exercise guidelines for the wider cancer population to those with or at risk of CRL. This includes promotion of aerobic and resistance exercise, and not just resistance exercise alone, as well as unsupervised exercise guided by symptom response.

Physical activity trajectories following gynecological cancer: results from a prospective, longitudinal cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Participating in physical activity after a diagnosis of cancer is associated with reduced morbidity and improved outcomes. However, declines in, and low levels of, physical activity are well documented in the broader cancer population, but with limited evidence following gynecological cancer. OBJECTIVE: To describe physical activity levels from before and up to 2 years after gynecological cancer surgery; to explore the relationship between physical activity patterns and quality of life; and to describe characteristics associated with physical activity trajectories post-gynecological cancer. METHODS: Women with gynecological cancer (n=408) participated in a prospective study that assessed physical activity and quality of life pre-surgery (baseline), at 6 weeks, and 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 24 months post-surgery. Validated questionnaires were used to assess physical activity (Active Australia Survey) and quality of life outcomes (Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General). Generalized estimating equation modeling, group-based trajectory analysis, and analysis of variance were used to identify physical activity levels over time, to categorize women into physical activity trajectory groups, and to assess the relationship between physical activity levels and quality of life, respectively. RESULTS: Women had a mean±SD age of 60±11.4 years at diagnosis, with the majority diagnosed with endometrial cancer (n=235, 58%) or stage I disease (n=241, 59%). Most women (80%) started with and maintained low levels of physical activity (1-10 metabolic equivalent task hours per week), reported no physical activity throughout the follow-up period, or reduced physical activity levels over time. Only 19% of women maintained or doubled physical activity levels, so that by 24 months post-diagnosis they were engaging in sufficient levels of physical activity. Women with endometrial cancer (58% of the sample) were more likely to be overweight or obese and to report low levels of physical activity or none at all. Higher physical activity levels were associated with higher quality of life (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: The low baseline and surveillance levels of physical activity show that the vast majority of gynecological cancer survivors have the ability to improve their physical activity levels. Integration of physical activity advice and support into standard care could lead to gains in quality of life during gynecological cancer survivorship.

Incidence and risk factors for lower limb lymphedema associated with endometrial cancer: Results from a prospective, longitudinal cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on the incidence and risk factors for lower limb lymphedema (LLL) associated with endometrial cancer is limited. Our objective was to use data from a prospective, longitudinal gynecological cancer cohort study to determine LLL incidence up to 24 months post-diagnosis of endometrial cancer and to explore the relationship between personal and treatment-related factors and risk of developing LLL. METHODS: Women recently diagnosed with endometrial cancer (n = 235) were evaluated at regular intervals post-diagnosis (up to 3-monthly) using bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) and self-reported leg swelling (SRLS). RESULTS: Incidence of LLL at 24 months post-diagnosis was 33% and 45% according to BIS and SRLS, respectively. When analyses were restricted to obese women, incidence at 24 months post-diagnosis increased to 67% (BIS) and 54% (SRLS). Following adjusted analyses, higher body mass index was associated with higher odds of baseline lymphedema (BIS: OR 1.91, 95% CI 1.47-2.49, p < .01; SRLS: OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.00-1.12, p < .01) and LLL incidence by 24 months post-diagnosis (BIS: OR 1.29, 95% CI: 0.99-1.68, p = .055; SRLS: OR 1.06, 95% CI 1.02-1.11, p = .008). According to SRLS, presence of comorbidities was also associated with baseline lymphedema (OR: 1.43, 95% CI: 1.15-1.78, p = .001), and more extensive lymph node dissection (OR 1.06, 95% CI: 1.01-1.12, p = .026) and receipt of chemotherapy (OR: 2.65, 95% CI: 1.12-6.29, p = .027) were identified as risk factors for lymphedema incidence. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that LLL following endometrial cancer is common, particularly in women with high body mass index, or comorbidities, and those requiring more extensive lymph node dissection or chemotherapy. Future studies should examine the potential of weight loss intervention as a strategy to reduce LLL incidence.

A Bioimpedance Spectroscopy-Based Method for Diagnosis of Lower-Limb Lymphedema.

Background: This study aimed at testing whether arm-to-leg ratios of extracellular water (ECW) and ECW normalized to intracellular water (ICW), measured by bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS), can accurately detect bilateral, lower-limb lymphedema, and whether accounting for sex, age, and body mass index (BMI) improves the diagnostic performance of cut-offs. Methods and Results: We conducted a dual-approach, case-control study consisting of cases of bilateral, lower-limb lymphedema and healthy controls who self-reported absence of lymphedema. The diagnostic performance using normative data-derived cut-offs (i.e., mean + 0.5 standard deviation [SD] to mean + 3 SD; n = 136, 66% controls) and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve-derived cut-offs (n = 746, 94% controls) was assessed. The impact of sex, age, and BMI was investigated by comparing stratified and nonstratified normative data-derived cut-offs, and ROC curves generated from adjusted and unadjusted logistic regression models. Arm-to-leg ratios of ECW between mean + 0.5 SD and mean + 1 SD showed fair to good sensitivity (0.73-0.84) and poor to good specificity (0.64 to 0.84). Arm-to-leg ratios of ECW/ICW failed to detect lymphedema (sensitivity <0.5). Stratification by sex, or by sex and age, yielded similar results to nonstratified cut-offs. Cut-offs derived from adjusted ROC curves showed both good sensitivity (0.83-0.89) and specificity (0.8-0.84). Conclusion: These findings represent new BIS criteria for diagnosing lower-limb lymphedema that do not rely on comparison to baseline measures or the presence of a nonaffected, contralateral limb.

Normative Interlimb Impedance Ratios: Implications for Early Diagnosis of Uni- and Bilateral, Upper and Lower Limb Lymphedema.

Background: Bioimpedance spectroscopy detects unilateral lymphedema if the ratio of extracellular fluid (ECF) between arms or between legs is outside three standard deviations (SDs) of the normative mean. Detection of bilateral lymphedema, common after bilateral breast or gynecological cancer, is complicated by the unavailability of an unaffected contralateral limb. The objectives of this work were to (1) present normative values for interarm, interleg, and arm-to-leg impedance ratios of ECF and ECF normalized to intracellular fluid (ECF/ICF); (2) evaluate the influence of sex, age, and body mass index on ratios; and (3) describe the normal change in ratios within healthy individuals over time. Methods: Data from five studies were combined to generate a normative data set (n = 808) from which mean and SD were calculated for interarm, interleg, and arm-to-leg ratios of ECF and ECF/ICF. The influence of sex, age, and body mass index was evaluated using multiple linear regression, and normative change was calculated for participants with repeated measures by subtracting their lowest ratio from their highest ratio. Results: Mean (SD) interarm, interleg, dominant arm-to-leg, and nondominant arm-to-leg ratios were 0.987 (0.067), 1.005 (0.072), 1.129 (0.160), and 1.165 (0.174) for ECF ratios; and 0.957 (0.188), 1.024 (0.183), 1.194 (0.453), and 1.117 (0.367) for ECF/ICF ratios, respectively. Arm-to-leg ratios were significantly affected by sex, age, and body mass index. Mean normative change ranged from 7.2% to 14.7% for ECF ratios and from 14.7% to 67.1% for ECF/ICF ratios. Conclusion: These findings provide the necessary platform for extending bioimpedance-based screening beyond unilateral lymphedema.

Lymphedema following gynecological cancer: Results from a prospective, longitudinal cohort study on prevalence, incidence and risk factors.

OBJECTIVE: Cancer-related lymphedema is a debilitating condition that adversely influences function, health and quality of life. The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of lower-limb lymphedema pre- through to 24months post-surgery for gynecological cancer. METHODS: A clinic-based sample of women (n=408) with gynecological cancer participated in a prospective, longitudinal study (2008-2011) using self-reported measures (swelling in one or both legs) and objectively measured lymphedema (bioimpedance spectroscopy) at baseline (pre-surgery), six weeks-three months, 6-12months, and 15-24months post-surgery. RESULTS: At pre-surgery, 15% of women self-reported lymphedema and 27% had measurable evidence of lymphedema. By 24months post-surgery, incidence of new self-reported or measured lymphedema was 45% and 37%, respectively. Three-quarters of these new cases presented by 12-months post-treatment. While lymphedema was transient for some women, 60% had persistent lymphedema. More extensive lymph node dissection, receipt of chemotherapy and radiation therapy, increasing body mass index, insufficient levels of physical activity, diagnosis of vulvar/vaginal cancer and presence of pre-treatment lymphedema were identified as potential risk factors (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Findings support the need for integration of pre-surgical assessment, and prospective, post-treatment surveillance of lymphedema into gynecological cancer care. Future research exploring the role of maintaining healthy body weight, regular physical activity and education about early detection of lymphedema to improve gynecological cancer survivorship is warranted.

Compression use during an exercise intervention and associated changes in breast cancer-related lymphedema.

AIM: This study assessed the association between compression use and changes in lymphedema observed in women with breast cancer-related lymphedema who completed a 12-week exercise intervention. METHODS: This work uses data collected from a 12 week exercise trial, whereby women were randomly allocated into either aerobic-based only (n = 21) or resistance-based only (n = 20) exercise. Compression use during the trial was at the participants discretion. Differences in lymphedema (measured by lymphedema index [L-Dex] score and interlimb circumference difference [%]) and associated symptoms between those who wore, and did not wear compression during the 12-week intervention were assessed. We also explored participants' reasons surrounding compression during exercise. RESULTS: No significant interaction effect between time and compression use for lymphedema was observed. There was no difference between groups over time in the number or severity of lymphedema symptoms. Irrespective of compression use, there were trends for reductions in the proportion of women reporting severe symptoms, but lymphedema status did not change. Individual reasons for the use of compression, or lack thereof, varied markedly. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrated an absence of a positive or negative effect from compression use during exercise on lymphedema. Current and previous findings suggest the clinical recommendation that garments must be worn during exercise is questionable, and its application requires an individualized approach.

Manual lymph drainage when added to advice and exercise may not be effective in preventing lymphoedema after surgery for breast cancer.

UNLABELLED: Summary of: Devoogdt N et al (2011) Effect of manual lymph drainage in addition to guidelines and exercise therapy on arm lymphoedema related to breast cancer: randomized controlled trial. BMJ 343: d5326. [Prepared by Nicholas Taylor, CAP Editor.] QUESTION: Does manual lymph drainage prevent lymphoedema in patients who have had surgery for breast cancer?. DESIGN: Randomised, controlled trial with concealed allocation and blinded outcome assessment. SETTING: A multidisciplinary breast centre of a tertiary hospital in Belgium. PARTICIPANTS: Patients were eligible to be included if they received unilateral surgery with axillary node dissection for breast cancer, and agreed to participate. Randomisation of 160 participants allocated 79 to the intervention group and 81 to a control group. INTERVENTIONS: Both groups received guidelines about the prevention of lymphoedema in the form of a brochure, and exercise therapy involving supervised individualised 30 minute sessions - initially twice a week, reducing to once fortnightly as patients progressed. Participants in both groups were also asked to perform exercises at home twice/day. In addition, the intervention group received 40 sessions of manual lymph drainage over 20 weeks with each session lasting 30 minutes and performed by trained therapists. OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcomes were the cumulative incidence of and the time to develop arm lymphoedema (defined as a 200 ml increase) as measured with the water displacement method with measures taken at baseline and 1, 3, 6, and 12 months after surgery. Secondary outcome measures were lymphoedema measured with the arm circumference method, health-related quality of life using the SF-36 scale, and a patient reported questionnaire to score the presence of subjective arm lymphoedema. RESULTS: 154 participants (96%) completed the study at 12 months. At 12 months the incidence of lymphoedema in the intervention group (n=18, 24%) was similar to the incidence of lymphoedema in the control group (n = 15, 19%, OR 1.3, 95% CI 0.6 to 2.4); also there was no difference in incidence at 3 or 6 months. There was no difference between the groups in the time taken to develop lymphoedema, and no difference between the groups in any secondary outcome measure. CONCLUSION: The application of manual lymph drainage after axillary node dissection for breast cancer in addition to providing guidelines and exercise therapy did not prevent lymphoedema in the first year after surgery.

Exercise and secondary lymphedema: safety, potential benefits, and research issues.

PURPOSE: Participating in regular physical activity is encouraged after treatment for breast cancer, with exception of those who have subsequently developed lymphedema. The purpose of this project was to investigate, in a randomized controlled trial, the effect of participating in a supervised, mixed-type exercise program on lymphedema status among women with lymphedema after breast cancer. METHODS: Women younger than 76 yr, who completed breast cancer treatment at least 6 months prior and had subsequently developed unilateral, upper-limb lymphedema, were randomly allocated to an intervention (n = 16) or control (n = 16) group. The intervention group (IG) participated in 20 supervised, group, aerobic and resistance exercise sessions over 12 wk, whereas the control group (CG) was instructed to continue habitual activities. Lymphedema status was assessed by bioimpedance spectroscopy (impedance ratio between limbs) and perometry (volume difference between limbs), and independent t-tests (two-tailed P < 0.05) were used to determine statistical significance of observed changes. RESULTS: Mean ratio and volume measures at baseline were similar for the IG (1.13 +/- 0.15 and 337 +/- 307 mL, respectively) and the CG (1.13 +/- 0.19 and 377 +/- 416 mL, respectively), and no changes were observed over time for either group. Although no group change was observed between preintervention and 3-month follow-up for the IG (ratio and volume change = 0.02 +/- 0.07 and 2 +/- 71 mL, respectively), two women in this group no longer had evidence of lymphedema by study end. Average attendance was more than 70% of supervised sessions, there were no withdrawals, and several qualitative comments from participants support the program acceptability. CONCLUSIONS: The results from this pilot study indicate that, at minimum, exercise does not exacerbate secondary lymphedema. Women with secondary lymphedema should be encouraged to be physically active, optimizing their physical and psychosocial recovery.

Improving the physical status and quality of life of women treated for breast cancer: a pilot study of a structured exercise intervention.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: This pilot project assessed the acceptability of a mixed-type, moderate-intensity exercise programme following breast cancer treatment, and the impact on presence of lymphoedema, fitness, body composition, fatigue, mood and quality of life. METHODS: Ten women completed the programme and measures of fitness (sub-maximal ergometer test), body composition (bio-electrical impedance), lympoedema (bio-electrical impedance and arm circumferences), fatigue (revised Piper Fatigue Scale), mood (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale), quality of life (FACT-B) and general well-being, at baseline, completion of the programme, and 6-week and 3-month follow-up. RESULTS: Participation in the programme caused no adverse effect on the presence of lymphoedema. There was a trend towards reduction in fatigue and improved quality of life across the testing phases. Women rated the programme extremely favourably, citing benefits of the support of other women, trained guidance, and the opportunity to experience different types of exercise. CONCLUSIONS: A mixed-type, moderate-intensity exercise program in a group format is acceptable to women following breast cancer treatment, with the potential to reduce fatigue and improve quality of life, without exacerbating or precipitating lymphoedema. This pilot work needs to be confirmed in larger randomised studies.

Shoulder movement after breast cancer surgery: results of a randomised controlled study of postoperative physiotherapy.

Breast screening programmes have facilitated more conservative approaches to the surgical and radiotherapy management of women diagnosed with breast cancer. This study investigated changes in shoulder movement after surgery for primary, operable breast cancer to determine the effect of elective physiotherapy intervention. Sixty-five women were randomly assigned to either the treatment (TG) or control group (CG) and assessments were completed preoperatively, at day 5 and at 1 month, 3, 6, 12 and 24 months postoperatively. The CG only received an exercise instruction booklet in comparison to the TG who received the Physiotherapy Management Care Plan (PMCP). Analyses of variance revealed that abduction returned to preoperative levels more quickly in the TG than in the CG. The TG women had 14 degrees more abduction at 3 months and 7 degrees at 24 months. Functional recovery at 1 month was greater in those randomised to the TG, with a dominant operated arm (OA) or receiving breast-conserving surgery. However, it was not possible to predict recovery over the 2 years postoperatively on the basis of an individual woman's recovery at 1 month postoperatively. The eventual recovery of abduction or flexion range of movement was not related to the dominance of the OA nor to the surgical procedure performed. The PMCP provided in the early postoperative period is effective in facilitating and maintaining the recovery of shoulder movement over the first 2 years after breast cancer surgery.

Physiotherapy after breast cancer surgery: results of a randomised controlled study to minimise lymphoedema.

The development of secondary arm lymphoedema after the removal of axillary lymph nodes remains a potential problem for women with breast cancer. This study investigated the incidence of arm lymphoedema following axillary dissection to determine the effect of prospective monitoring and early physiotherapy intervention. Sixty-five women were randomly assigned to either the treatment (TG) or control group (CG) and assessments were made preoperatively, at day 5 and at 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 months postoperatively. Three measurements were used for the detection of arm lymphoedema: arm circumferences (CIRC), arm volume (VOL) and multi-frequency bioimpedance (MFBIA). Clinically significant lymphoedema was confirmed by an increase of at least 200 ml from the preoperative difference between the two arms. Using this definition, the incidence of lymphoedema at 24 mo. was 21%, with a rate of 11% in the TG compared to 30% in the CG. The CIRC or MFBIA methods failed to detect lymphoedema in up to 50% of women who demonstrated an increase of at least 200 ml in the VOL of the operated arm compared to the unoperated arm. The physiotherapy intervention programme for the TG women included principles for lymphoedema risk minimisation and early management of this condition when it was identified. These strategies appear to reduce the development of secondary lymphoedema and alter its progression in comparison to the CG women. Monitoring of these women is continuing and will determine if these benefits are maintained over a longer period for women with early lymphoedema after breast cancer surgery.