The coordination behaviour and reactivity of partially silicon based crown ethers towards beryllium chloride.

Through reactions of 1,2-disila[12]crown-4 or 1,2-disila-benzo[12]crown-4 ethers with BeCl2 eight-membered Be-O-heterocycles, which are annulated by two six-membered Be-O-cycles were obtained and characterised. The reactions leading to these unusual ring systems have been investigated by NMR and IR spectroscopy as well as reactions with further ligand derivatives.

Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metal Derivatives of Disila-Bridged Podands: Coordination Chemistry and Structural Diversity.

Within this study, the synthesis and coordination chemistry of open-chain ligands bearing disila-units is presented. Instead of basic 1:1 complexes, structural diversity was discovered in the variety of ligand and salt. Stable complexes of alkali and alkaline earth metal complexes were obtained by equimolar reactions of different salts with the disila-bridged podands 8,9-disila-EO5 (1) and 11,12-disila-EO7 (2) (EO5 = pentaethylene glycol; EO7 = heptaethylene glycol). The respective alkaline earth metal complexes of the type [Ca(8,9-disila-EO5)(OTf)2] (3), [Sr(8,9-disila-EO5)I2] (5), [Sr(11,12-disila-EO7)I]I (6), and [Ba(11,12-disila-EO7)OTf2] (7) (OTf = CF3SO3-) were characterized via single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses. Within the reaction of the alkali metal salt NaPF6 with 1, the sodium ion acts as a template during the complexation process. Under elimination of one molecule of diethylene glycol, the dinuclear species [Na2(8,9,17,18-tetrasila-EO8)(PF6)2]·EO2 (4) (EO8 = octaethylen glycol, EO2 = diethylene glycol) is obtained, in which the sodium cations are 7-fold coordinated within a disilane-bearing framework. The reaction of 2 with CsOTf failed, leading to recrystallization of anhydrous CsOTf. By means of DFT calculations it was shown that the disila-bearing ligands are burdened with negative hyperconjugation interactions between the silicon and the oxygen atoms, but the coordination by sufficiently hard cations can easily overcompensate the competing polarization. In contrast, soft Lewis acids barely share interactions with silicon-bonded oxygen atoms. All findings are consistent with observations made in solution according to 29Si NMR spectroscopical studies.

Crown Ether Complexes of Alkali-Metal Chlorides from SO2.

The structures of alkali-metal chloride SO2 solvates (Li-Cs) in conjunction with 12-crown-4 or 1,2-disila-12-crown-4 show strong discrepancies, despite the structural similarity of the ligands. Both types of crown ethers form 1:1 complexes with LiCl to give [Li(1,2-disila-12-crown-4)(SO2 Cl)] (1) and [Li(12-crown-4)Cl]⋅4 SO2 (2). However, 1,2-disila-12-crown-4 proved unable to coordinate cations too large for the cavity diameter, for example, by the formation of sandwich-type complexes. As a result, 12-crown-4 reacts exclusively with the heavier alkali-metal chlorides NaCl, KCl and RbCl. Compounds [Na(12-crown-4)2 ]Cl⋅4 SO2 (3) and [M(12-crown-4)2 (SO2 )]Cl⋅4 SO2 (4: M=K; 5: M=Rb) all showed S-coordination to the chloride ions through four SO2 molecules. Compounds 4 and 5 additionally exhibit the first crystallographically confirmed non-bridging O,O'-coordination mode of SO2 . Unexpectedly, the disila-crown ether supports the dissolution of RbCl and CsCl in the solvent and gives the homoleptic SO2 -solvated alkali-metal chlorides [MCl⋅3 SO2 ] (6: M=Rb; 7: M=Cs), which incorporate bridging µ-O,O'-coordinating moieties and the unprecedented side-on O,O'-coordination mode. All compounds were characterised by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The crown ether complexes were additionally studied by using NMR spectroscopy, and the presence of SO2 at ambient temperature was revealed by IR spectroscopy of the neat compounds.

A structural study of alkaline earth metal complexes with hybrid disila-crown ethers.

Compounds consisting of [M(1,2-disila-[3n]crown-n)]2+ (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; n = 5, 6) and [Ba(1,2-disila-benzo[18]crown-6)]2+ cations and different anions were obtained by equimolar reaction of the hybrid disila-crown ethers 1,2-disila[15]crown-5 (1), 1,2-disila[18]crown-6 (2) and 1,2-disila-benzo[18]crown-6 (7) with alkaline earth metal salts. Even with strongly coordinating anions such as Br- or I- stable complexes could be obtained, showing the good coordination ability of these ligands. The structures of all coordination compounds were determined via single crystal X-ray diffraction (XRD). By means of DFT calculations, the complexation ability of 1,2-disila[15]crown-5 (1) towards magnesium bromide was determined to be considerably higher compared to [15]crown-5. The opposite case was observed in solution as the exchange of calcium cations between [18]crown-6 and 1,2-disila[18]crown-6 (2) was studied via dynamic proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Synthesis and coordination ability of a partially silicon based crown ether.

The first hybrid crown ether with two adjacent disilane fragments was synthesized through reaction of O(Si2Me4Cl)2 (3) with O(C2H4OH)2. By means of DFT calculations, the complexation ability of 1,2,4,5-tetrasila[12]crown-4 (7) towards Li+ was determined to be considerably higher compared to [12]crown-4.

Stable Alkali-Metal Complexes of Hybrid Disila-Crown Ethers.

The complexation ability of hybrid disilane and ethylene containing crown ether ring systems was analyzed using 1,2-disila[12]crown-4 (1), 1,2-disila[15]crown-5 (2), 1,2-disila[18]crown-6 (3), and 1,2,7,8-tetrasila[12]crown-4 (7). Alkali-metal complexes (Li(+), Na(+), K(+)) were obtained and analyzed via X-ray diffraction. The complex stability of [Li(1,2-disila[12]crown-4)](+) and [Li(1,2,7,8-tetrasila[12]crown-4)](+) was determined, in relation to the lithium complex of [12]crown-4, by density functional theory (DFT) calculations employing the BP86/def2-TZVP level of theory. In solution, the exchange of lithium cations between pure [12]crown-4 and hybrid [12]crown-4 is on even terms, as has been shown from the relative binding affinity of compounds 1 and 7 by means of dynamic proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Stepwise synthesis of a stable diphosphasilirane and its unexpected dimerization.

The synthesis of the thermally stable bicyclic diphosphasilirane O(SiiPr2P)2SiiPr2 (4) was achieved via oxidation of the alkaline earth metal substituted cyclic diphosphanide 3 with 1,2-dibromoethane. Nonetheless, during extended storage at low temperature, impurity induced rearrangement in favour of the dimeric species [O(SiiPr2P)2SiiPr2]2 (5) is observed.

Optogenetic stimulation of the auditory pathway.

Auditory prostheses can partially restore speech comprehension when hearing fails. Sound coding with current prostheses is based on electrical stimulation of auditory neurons and has limited frequency resolution due to broad current spread within the cochlea. In contrast, optical stimulation can be spatially confined, which may improve frequency resolution. Here, we used animal models to characterize optogenetic stimulation, which is the optical stimulation of neurons genetically engineered to express the light-gated ion channel channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2). Optogenetic stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) activated the auditory pathway, as demonstrated by recordings of single neuron and neuronal population responses. Furthermore, optogenetic stimulation of SGNs restored auditory activity in deaf mice. Approximation of the spatial spread of cochlear excitation by recording local field potentials (LFPs) in the inferior colliculus in response to suprathreshold optical, acoustic, and electrical stimuli indicated that optogenetic stimulation achieves better frequency resolution than monopolar electrical stimulation. Virus-mediated expression of a ChR2 variant with greater light sensitivity in SGNs reduced the amount of light required for responses and allowed neuronal spiking following stimulation up to 60 Hz. Our study demonstrates a strategy for optogenetic stimulation of the auditory pathway in rodents and lays the groundwork for future applications of cochlear optogenetics in auditory research and prosthetics.

Modes and regulation of endocytic membrane retrieval in mouse auditory hair cells.

Synaptic vesicle recycling sustains high rates of neurotransmission at the ribbon-type active zones (AZs) of mouse auditory inner hair cells (IHCs), but its modes and molecular regulation are poorly understood. Electron microscopy indicated the presence of clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) and bulk endocytosis. The endocytic proteins dynamin, clathrin, and amphiphysin are expressed and broadly distributed in IHCs. We used confocal vglut1-pHluorin imaging and membrane capacitance (Cm) measurements to study the spatial organization and dynamics of IHC exocytosis and endocytosis. Viral gene transfer expressed vglut1-pHluorin in IHCs and targeted it to synaptic vesicles. The intravesicular pH was ∼6.5, supporting only a modest increase of vglut1-pHluorin fluorescence during exocytosis and pH neutralization. Ca(2+) influx triggered an exocytic increase of vglut1-pHluorin fluorescence at the AZs, around which it remained for several seconds. The endocytic Cm decline proceeded with constant rate (linear component) after exocytosis of the readily releasable pool (RRP). When exocytosis exceeded three to four RRP equivalents, IHCs additionally recruited a faster Cm decline (exponential component) that increased with the amount of preceding exocytosis and likely reflects bulk endocytosis. The dynamin inhibitor Dyngo-4a and the clathrin blocker pitstop 2 selectively impaired the linear component of endocytic Cm decline. A missense mutation of dynamin 1 (fitful) inhibited endocytosis to a similar extent as Dyngo-4a. We propose that IHCs use dynamin-dependent endocytosis via CME to support vesicle cycling during mild stimulation but recruit bulk endocytosis to balance massive exocytosis.

Probing the functional equivalence of otoferlin and synaptotagmin 1 in exocytosis.

Cochlear inner hair cells (IHCs) use Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis of glutamate to signal sound information. Otoferlin (Otof), a C(2) domain protein essential for IHC exocytosis and hearing, may serve as a Ca(2+) sensor in vesicle fusion in IHCs that seem to lack the classical neuronal Ca(2+) sensors synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1) and Syt2. Support for the Ca(2+) sensor of fusion hypothesis for otoferlin function comes from biochemical experiments, but additional roles in late exocytosis upstream of fusion have been indicated by physiological studies. Here, we tested the functional equivalence of otoferlin and Syt1 in three neurosecretory model systems: auditory IHCs, adrenal chromaffin cells, and hippocampal neurons. Long-term and short-term ectopic expression of Syt1 in IHCs of Otof (-/-) mice by viral gene transfer in the embryonic inner ear and organotypic culture failed to rescue their Ca(2+) influx-triggered exocytosis. Conversely, virally mediated overexpression of otoferlin did not restore phasic exocytosis in Syt1-deficient chromaffin cells or neurons but enhanced asynchronous release in the latter. We further tested exocytosis in Otof (-/-) hippocampal neurons and in Syt1(-/-) IHCs but found no deficits in vesicle fusion. Expression analysis of different synaptotagmin isoforms indicated that Syt1 and Syt2 are absent from mature IHCs. Our data argue against a simple functional equivalence of the two C(2) domain proteins in exocytosis of IHC ribbon synapses, chromaffin cells, and hippocampal synapses.

Hearing requires otoferlin-dependent efficient replenishment of synaptic vesicles in hair cells.

Inner hair cell ribbon synapses indefatigably transmit acoustic information. The proteins mediating their fast vesicle replenishment (hundreds of vesicles per s) are unknown. We found that an aspartate to glycine substitution in the C(2)F domain of the synaptic vesicle protein otoferlin impaired hearing by reducing vesicle replenishment in the pachanga mouse model of human deafness DFNB9. In vitro estimates of vesicle docking, the readily releasable vesicle pool (RRP), Ca(2+) signaling and vesicle fusion were normal. Moreover, we observed postsynaptic excitatory currents of variable size and spike generation. However, mutant active zones replenished vesicles at lower rates than wild-type ones and sound-evoked spiking in auditory neurons was sparse and only partially improved during longer interstimulus intervals. We conclude that replenishment does not match the release of vesicles at mutant active zones in vivo and a sufficient standing RRP therefore cannot be maintained. We propose that otoferlin is involved in replenishing synaptic vesicles.

Delineation of large deletions of the MECP2 gene in Rett syndrome patients, including a familial case with a male proband.

Comprehensive genetic screening programs have led to the identification of pathogenic methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) mutations in up to 95% of classical Rett syndrome (RTT) patients. This high rate of mutation detection can partly be attributed to specialised techniques that have enabled the detection of large deletions in a substantial fraction of otherwise mutation-negative patients. These cases would normally be missed by the routine PCR-based screening strategies. Here, we have identified large multi-exonic deletions in 12/149 apparently mutation-negative RTT patients using multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA). These deletions were subsequently characterised using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and long-range PCR with the ultimate aim of defining the exact nucleotide positions of the breakpoints and rearrangements. We detected an apparent deletion in one further patient using MLPA; however, this finding was contradicted by subsequent qPCR and long-range PCR results. The patient group includes an affected brother and sister with a large MECP2 deletion also present in their carrier mother. The X chromosome inactivation pattern of all female patients in this study was determined, which, coupled with detailed clinical information, allowed meaningful genotype-phenotype correlations to be drawn. This study reaffirms the view that large MECP2 deletions are an important cause of both classical and atypical RTT syndrome, and cautions that apparent deletions detected using high-throughput diagnostic techniques require further characterisation.