Potential reuse of domestic organic residues as soil organic amendment in the current waste management system in Australia, China, and The Netherlands.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is essential for most soil functions. Changes in land use from natural land to cropland disrupt long-established SOC balances and reduce SOC levels. The intensive use of chemical fertilisers in modern agriculture accelerates the rate of SOC depletion. Domestic organic residues (DOR) are a valuable source of SOC replenishment with high carbon content. However, there is still a lack of knowledge and data regarding whether and to what extent DOR can contribute to replenishing SOC. This paper aims to unpack the potential of DOR as a SOC source. Total SOC demand and annual SOC loss are defined and calculated. The carbon flow within different DOR management systems is investigated in three countries (China, Australia, and The Netherlands). The results show that the total SOC demand is too large to be fulfilled by DOR in a short time. However, DOR still has a high potential as a source of SOC as it can mitigate the annual SOC loss by up to 100%. Achieving this 100% mitigation requires a shift to more circular management of DOR, in particular, more composting, and direct land application instead of landfilling and incineration (Australia and China), or a higher rate of source separation of DOR (The Netherlands). These findings form the basis for future research on DOR recycling as a SOC source.

Biophysical Techniques to Study B Cell Activation: Single-Molecule Imaging and Force Measurements.

Cells of the adaptive immune system recognize pathogenic peptides through specialized receptors on their membranes. The engagement of these receptors with antigen leads to cell activation, which induces profound changes in the cell including cytoskeleton remodeling and membrane deformation. During this process, receptors and signaling molecules undergo spatiotemporal reorganization to form signaling microclusters and the immunological synapse. The cytoskeletal and membrane dynamics also leads to exertion of forces on the cell-substrate interface. In this chapter we describe two techniques-one for single-molecule imaging of B cell receptors to measure their diffusive properties as cells get activated on supported lipid bilayers; and the second for visualizing and quantifying cellular forces using elastic surfaces to stimulate T and B cells.