A step forward in quantifying the substitutability of secondary materials in waste management life cycle assessment studies.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a widespread tool used to guide decision-makers towards optimal strategic choices for sustainable growth. A key aspect of LCA studies of waste management systems where recycling activities are present is to account for resource recovery and the related substitution effects. Although multiple scientific papers assume a 1:1 substitution ratio between similar materials/products, this is often incorrect as the actual ratio is likely to vary. The focus of this paper is on the calculation of the substitutability coefficient for secondary materials based on technical characteristics. A state of the art literature review showed that many different calculation procedures were applied, which led to a wide variety of substitutability coefficients (sometimes provided under different terminology). In this perspective, the objective of this paper is to provide guidelines on the procedure to be followed to calculate the substitutability coefficient for secondary materials, based on technical characteristics. These guidelines are then applied to two waste management case studies, one dealing with bottom ashes from incineration and the other with plastic waste. In total, sixteen technical substitutability coefficients are given for ten secondary materials, based on state of the art and presented case studies. The paper thus represents a step forward in quantifying the substitutability of secondary materials in waste management LCA studies. The guidelines presented may allow other case studies to enrich the list of coefficients, useful for all LCA practitioners in a harmonized way allowing a more correct evaluation of the environmental impacts associated with recycling activities.

Is selective demolition always a sustainable choice?

Selective demolition is usually perceived as essential for a sustainable built environment since it aims to maximise the valorisation of constituent building materials and components giving them a new life. The successful diversion of construction materials from landfill and the extent of recovery of construction and demolition wastes as secondary raw materials depend on how the demolition work is executed, as well as on the logistic and economic aspects of the geographic context. The main goal of this study is to critically explore the sustainability of selective demolition practices versus traditional ones by addressing the environmental issues through the Life Cycle Assessment methodology. The key parameters that determine the environmental profile of a selective demolition project and their effects on the overall environmental balance were identified. Primary site-specific data supplied by the demolition companies involved in the demolition of a residential building located in Milan (Northern Italy) were used in the analysis. The results indicate that the environmental sustainability depends a lot on the characteristics of the building to be demolished as well as on the local markets for recycled materials. Moreover, the benefits from substituting primary raw materials can be overset by the increased impacts due to additional energy requirements of the selective demolition in comparison to the traditional one. Consequently, the environmental sustainability of selective demolition should be addressed on a case by case basis.

Social media and e-learning use among European exercise science students.

With the rise of digital technologies, electronic learning and communication tools are becoming a firm part of academia to promote knowledge of health sciences. This study sought to analyse the attitude of students regarding social media and digital learning for study purposes in sport and exercise science. A survey was carried out with a questionnaire (20 main items) in six sport science faculties, equally spread across Germany (G), Italy (I) and the United Kingdom (UK) between February and October 2017. The focus areas were students' usage of social media (Facebook, Google+, Instagram, LinkedIn, Skype, Twitter, WhatsApp, YouTube) for academic purposes and their use of e-learning. Data were analysed by quantitative and qualitative methods. 229 students participated in the study (G: 68, I: 121, UK: 40). While YouTube was mostly used for receiving knowledge, WhatsApp and Facebook showed additional preferences for peer contacts for learning purposes and knowledge discussions. Preferred online data sources were PubMed (77%), free access journals (67%), YouTube (66%) and Wikipedia (63%). Often used digital learning materials were own universities' PowerPoints (77%), scripts (59%) and scientific articles (53%). However, some preferences showed national differences. The evaluated participants showed an overall high use of social media and e-learning tools for their studies. Students would like more digital learning sources made available to them by their institutions. However, some differences in preferences of digital learning or communication tools may exist and this should be considered for international approaches to promote health knowledge among students.

Towards resource-efficient management of asphalt waste in Lombardy region (Italy): Identification of effective strategies based on the LCA methodology.

This study presents a comparison of alternative strategies for managing asphalt waste currently implemented in Lombardy Region (Italy). The waste under study is the one arising from deconstruction and milling of old pavements not containing tar, and, hereafter, it is referred as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was applied to the regional system to evaluate its current performance, to identify critical aspects and to suggest actions for improving it. As first step, the amount of RAP generated and recycled within the region was computed by elaborating raw waste data annually collected by the regional agency for the environmental protection. Roughly 1 million tonne of RAP was managed in Lombardy in 2014; most of it was recovered/recycled and only 1% was directly landfilled. Data revealed that RAP was mainly recovered as unbound aggregate for road bases and sub-bases or fillings (52.5%) whereas RAP addition into new asphalt mixtures was less widespread (39.4%). In this case, RAP was mostly recycled in stationary hot mix asphalt (HMAs) and cold mix asphalt (CMAs) plants. Hence, the present LCA focused on these two types of techniques. Primary data on both processes were directly collected from some investigated facilities to set out the current scenario. Sensitivity analyses were then performed to find out the key parameters and their influence on the LCA outcome. Results indicate that recycling RAP in hot/cold mixes is significantly more beneficial than its recovery as unbound material. Moreover, hot recycling provides better environmental performance than cold processes performed at stationary plants, despite the lower RAP addition (20% in HMAs vs 80% in CMAs); this is mainly due to the use of stabilizing agents in the production of CMAs and to the lower field performance of CMAs compared to virgin HMAs. Based on these results, a best-case scenario has been developed to quantify the benefits arising from the suggested actions.

Mass balance and life cycle assessment of the waste electrical and electronic equipment management system implemented in Lombardia Region (Italy).

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is one of the fastest growing waste streams in Europe, whose content of hazardous substances as well as of valuable materials makes the study of the different management options particularly interesting. The present study investigates the WEEE management system in Lombardia Region (Italy) in the year 2011 by applying the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. An extensive collection of primary data was carried out to describe the main outputs and the energy consumptions of the treatment plants. Afterwards, the benefits and burdens associated with the treatment and recovery of each of the five categories in which WEEE is classified according to the Italian legislation (heaters and refrigerators - R1, large household appliances - R2, TV and monitors - R3, small household appliances - R4 and lighting equipment - R5) were evaluated. The mass balance of the treatment and recovery system of each of the five WEEE categories showed that steel and glass are the predominant streams of materials arising from the treatment; a non-negligible amount of plastic is also recovered, together with small amounts of precious metals. The LCA of the regional WEEE management system showed that the benefits associated with materials and energy recovery balance the burdens of the treatment processes, with the sole exception of two impact categories (human toxicity-cancer effects and freshwater ecotoxicity). The WEEE categories whose treatment and recovery resulted more beneficial for the environment and the human health are R3 and R5. The contribution analysis showed that overall the main benefits are associated with the recovery of metals, as well as of plastic and glass. Some suggestions for improving the performance of the system are given, as well as an indication for a more-in-depth analysis for the toxicity categories and a proposal for a new characterisation method for WEEE.

Magnetic blocking in extended metal atom chains: a pentachromium(II) complex behaving as a single-molecule magnet.

Compound [Cr5(tpda)4Cl2] (H2tpda = N(2),N(6)-di(pyridin-2-yl)pyridine-2,6-diamine), an Extended Metal Atom Chain complex featuring two quadruply-bonded {Cr2} units, exhibits field-induced slow relaxation of its magnetization arising from the terminal chromium(II) ion and provides the first example of a chromium(II)-based Single-Molecule Magnet.

Improvement actions in waste management systems at the provincial scale based on a life cycle assessment evaluation.

This paper reports some of the findings of the 'GERLA' project: GEstione Rifiuti in Lombardia - Analisi del ciclo di vita (Waste management in Lombardia - Life cycle assessment). The project was devoted to support Lombardia Region in the drafting of the new waste management plan by applying a life cycle thinking perspective. The present paper mainly focuses on four Provinces in the Region, which were selected based on their peculiarities. Life cycle assessment (LCA) was adopted as the methodology to assess the current performance of the integrated waste management systems, to discuss strengths and weaknesses of each of them and to design their perspective evolution as of year 2020. Results show that despite a usual business approach that is beneficial to all the provinces, the introduction of technological and management improvements to the system provides in general additional energy and environmental benefits for all four provinces. The same improvements can be easily extended to the whole Region, leading to increased environmental benefits from the waste management sector, in line with the targets set by the European Union for 2020.

Greenhouse gases emissions and energy use of wheat grain-based bioethanol fuel blends.

This study focuses on the potential energetic and environmental impacts associated with the production of wheat grain-based bioethanol in Lombardia (Italy), with a "seed-to-wheel" approach (i.e. taking into account the production and use phase). Greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) were estimated through the CML 2 baseline 2000 methodology counting the CO(2) equivalent emissions, while the energy flow indicator was estimated using the Ecoindicator 95 methodology. The impact of the different phases involved in the production and use of bioethanol have been analysed: the agricultural production of wheat grain, its transformation into bioethanol, the production of gasoline and the use of 5 different blends (from pure gasoline to pure ethanol). The results show that ethanol fuel, used in the form of blends in gasoline, can help reduce energy use and GHGs. In particular, the use of pure ethanol was found to be the best alternative presenting the lowest GHGs (saving about 32% of CO(2)eq emissions in comparison to gasoline) and the minor energy use (63% saving). Differences between low-ethanol blends and gasoline are minimal and dependent on the specific fuel consumption of the vehicle. The sensitivity analysis performed to test the robustness of results through the change of some basic assumptions (specific fuel consumption, N(2)O emissions from agricultural phase, allocation method) shows the sensitivity of GHGs saving to the adopted allocation method.

Material and energy recovery from Automotive Shredded Residues (ASR) via sequential gasification and combustion.

Shredding is the common end-of-life treatment in Europe for dismantled car wrecks. It produces the so-called Automotive Shredded Residue (ASR), usually disposed of in landfill. This paper summarizes the outcome of a study carried out by Politecnico di Milano and LEAP with the support of Actelios SpA on the prospects of a technology based on sequential gasification and combustion of this specific waste stream. Its application to the treatment of ASR allows the recovery of large fractions of metals as non-oxidized, easily marketable secondary raw materials, the vitrification of most of the ash content and the production of power via a steam cycle. Results show that despite the unfavourable characteristics of ASR, the proposed technology can reach appealing energy performances. Three of four environmental impact indicators and the cumulative energy demand index are favourable, the main positive contributes being electricity production and metal recovery (mainly aluminium and copper). The only unfavourable indicator is the global warming index because, since most of the carbon in ASR comes from fossil sources, the carbon dioxide emissions at the stack of the thermal treatment plant are mainly non-renewable and, at the same time, the avoided biogas production from the alternative disposal route of landfilling is minor.

Neuropathological changes in the peripheral nervous system and spinal cord in a transgenic mouse model of Niemann-Pick disease type A.

OBJECTIVE: Type A Niemann-Pick is a severe neurological disease, caused by a mutation of the gene of acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) and reduced enzyme activity. Some studies reported neuropathological changes occurring in the central nervous system of ASM deficient transgenic (ASMKO) mice, while a detailed study on the peripheral nervous system (PNS) at different ages is currently lacking. The aim of our study was to examine the pathological changes occurring in the PNS and in the spinal cord in an AMSKO model of Niemann-Pick disease (NPD) Type A. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Dorsal root ganglia (DRG), peripheral nerves and spinal cord specimens were obtained from ASMKO mice and age-matched wild type animals (age range = 1-7 months). They were observed at the light and electron microscope. Behavioral testing was performed to assess motor coordination and reactivity. Fluoro-Jade B was used as a high affinity fluorescent marker for degenerating neurons. RESULTS: Typical NPD cytoplasmic inclusions were observed in DRG neurons and satellite cells, in peripheral nerve Schwann cells, in spinal cord neurons and in endothelial cells. All these inclusions were present from the age of 1 month and increased with aging. By Fluoro-Jade B staining we demonstrated the occurrence of neuronal degeneration starting from 5 months of age. CONCLUSION: Despite the fact that a definite diagnosis of NPD Type A depends on enzymatic assays and/or molecular analysis, morphological investigation remains an important diagnostic procedure. Well-defined and complete neuropathological information about the ASMKO mouse model, inclusive of PNS examination, may be crucial in the pre-clinical evaluation of new therapies.

Life cycle assessment for optimising the level of separated collection in integrated MSW management systems.

This life cycle assessment study analyses material and energy recovery within integrated municipal solid waste (MSW) management systems, and, in particular, the recovery of the source-separated materials (packaging and organic waste) and the energy recovery from the residual waste. The recovery of materials and energy are analysed together, with the final aim to evaluate possible optimum levels of source-separated collection that lead to the most favourable energetic and environmental results; this method allows identification of an optimum configuration of the MSW management system. The results show that the optimum level of source-separated collection is about 60%, when all the materials are recovered with high efficiency; it decreases to about 50%, when the 60% level is reached as a result of a very high recovery efficiency for organic fractions at the expense of the packaging materials, or when this implies an appreciable reduction of the quality of collected materials. The optimum MSW management system is thus characterized by source-separated collection levels as included in the above indicated range, with subsequent recycling of the separated materials and energy recovery of the residual waste in a large-scale incinerator operating in combined heat and power mode.

Energy recovery from municipal waste: a case study for a middle-sized Italian district.

This paper reports the main outcome of research to compare and assess the merits of alternative strategies for energy recovery from municipal solid waste downstream of material recovery for an Italian province. Strategies analysed are based on well-established combustion technologies available at the commercial scale in the Italian market in comparison with an innovative but not yet proven option of refuse derived fuel gasification and subsequent co-combustion of syngas in a combined cycle power plant. The comparison is made using mass and energy balances, environmental assessment and economic analysis. From an energetic point of view, the best strategy is the one based on the refuse derived fuel gasification, which, on the contrary, does not show interesting environmental results. In this perspective, the best results are from strategies based on a dedicated plant, particularly when unsorted residual waste collected downstream of material recovery is used. Finally, from an economic point of view, the strategy with gasification allows the highest revenues from the sale of energy.

Extracorporeal photochemotherapy reduces the severity of Lewis rat experimental allergic encephalomyelitis through a modulation of the function of peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Extra corporeal photochemotherapy (ECP) is an immunomodulating procedure used in several nonneurological diseases which, similarly to multiple sclerosis, are likely to be due to T-cell-mediated autoimmunity and it is probable that ECP can modulate the normal activity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). Using the Lewis rat experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of human multiple sclerosis (MS) we examined the effect of extracorporeal UV-A irradiation on psoralen-activated PBMC. In our experiment the comparison between the two groups of animals (ECP or sham-treatment) evidenced that the ECP treatment reduced the severity of EAE on clinical grounds and this result was confirmed by the pathological examination. The changes in the titers of anti-myelin antigen antibodies typical of EAE were also modulated by the procedure. Ex vivo examination evidenced a significant reduction in tumor-necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) released by PBMC after lipopolysaccharides (LPS) stimulation in culture. We conclude that ECP modifies the normal activity of PBMC during the course of EAE and it is possible that one of the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of action of ECP is correlated to a down-regulation of T-helper 1 lymphocytes activity.

Interferon-gamma receptor 2 expression as the deciding factor in human T, B, and myeloid cell proliferation or death.

The heterodimeric interferon (IFN)-gamma receptor (IFN-gammaR) is formed of two chains. Here we show that the binding chain (IFN-gammaR1) was highly expressed on the membranes of T, B, and myeloid cells. Conversely, the transducing chain (IFN-gammaR2) was highly expressed on the surfaces of myeloid cells, moderately expressed on B cells, and poorly expressed on the surfaces of T cells. Differential cell membrane expression of IFN-gammaR2 determined the number of receptor complexes that transduced the IFN-gamma signal and resulted in a different response to IFN-gamma. After IFN-gamma stimulation, high IFN-gammaR2 membrane expression induced rapid activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT-1) and high levels of interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1), which then triggered the apoptotic program. By contrast, low cell membrane expression resulted in slow activation of STAT-1, lower levels of IRF-1, and induction of proliferation. Because the forced expression of IFN-gammaR2 on T cells switched their response to IFN-gamma from proliferative to apoptotic, we concluded that the surface expression of IFN-gammaR2 determines whether a cell stimulated by IFN-gamma undergoes proliferation or apoptosis.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 phosphorylated neurons in the tele- and diencephalon of rat after visceral pain stimulation: an immunocytochemical study.

We aimed at verifying whether extracellular signal-regulated kinases (erks) 1 and 2 are activated, i.e. phosphorylated, in forebrain neurons after visceral pain stimulation (VPS). Ether and urethane anaesthetized rats received an intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid or were left untreated (ECT, UCT). After 2 h the animals were perfused. Paraffin embedded brain sections immunoreacted with an antibody selective for the phosphorylated erks. The light microscope analysis revealed only a few labelled neurons in ECT, while in UCT, positive cells were detected. In VPS rats (VPSR) positive cells were mainly distributed in regions, such as the hypothalamic anterior and thalamic paraventricular midline nuclei, amygdala, hippocampal and parahippocampal, insular and perirhinal cortex, involved in nociception and/or visceral activities. Our data suggest an association of erks activation with the emotional component of nociception; moreover, they show that erks activation is not suppressed by anaesthesia.

Regulation of interferon-gamma receptor (INF-gammaR) chains: a peculiar way to rule the life and death of human lymphocytes.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) is a lymphokine produced by activated T lymphocytes and NK cells, that plays an important role in host defense mechanisms by exerting pleiotropic activities on a wide range of cell types. Cellular responses to IFN-gamma are mediated by its heterodimeric cell surface receptor (IFN-gammaR), which activates downstream signal transduction cascades, ultimately leading to the regulation of gene expression. Several observations suggest that the signals resulting from the binding of IFN-gamma to its receptor depend on the number of surface receptors transducing the IFN-gamma signal. This review summarizes recent advances in the understanding of the fine regulation of the response of human lymphocytes to IFN-gamma through an interplay between surface expression of IFN-gammaR and a variety of environmental factors that combine to control their fate.

Surface expression of the IFN-gamma R2 chain is regulated by intracellular trafficking in human T lymphocytes.

The surface and cytoplasmic expressions of the transducing chain (IFN-gamma R2) of the heterodimeric IFN-gamma receptor on human T lymphocytes have been investigated. We show that its surface expression is low, whereas high cytoplasmic levels are found in both resting and PHA-activated T lymphocytes. This low expression does not prevent activated T cells from responding to IFN-gamma, because it induces IFN-regulatory factor 1 expression. Low surface IFN-gamma R2 expression appears to be due to recycling between cytoplasmic stores and the cell surface, which does not depend on signals mediated by endogenous IFN-gamma, because IFN-gamma R2 surface expression is low, and its internalization is equally observed in patients with inherited IFN-gamma R1 gene deficiency and in healthy donors. Moreover, IFN-gamma R2 internalization in T lymphoblasts from healthy donors was not affected by the presence of anti-IFN-gamma-neutralizing or anti-IFN-gamma R1-blocking mAb. In conclusion, these data illustrate a new mechanism whereby human T cells limit the surface expression of IFN-gamma R2 in a ligand-independent manner.

A "stealth effect": adenocarcinoma cells engineered to express TRAIL elude tumor-specific and allogeneic T cell reactions.

BALB/c mammary adenocarcinoma cells engineered to express TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)/APO-2 ligand (APO-2L) on their membrane (TSA-TRAIL) grow with kinetics similar to that of parental cells (TSA-pc) in vitro and in nu/nu mice. In contrast, TSA-TRAIL cells grow faster than TSA-pc in normal BALB/c mice. In DBA/2 mice, which differ from BALB/c mice at minor histocompatibility Ags, they also grow faster and display a higher percentage of tumor takes than TSA-pc. In fully histoincompatible C57BL/6 (B6) mice, TSA-TRAIL cells form evident tumors that are slowly rejected by most mice, but outgrow in a few. In contrast, TSA-pc cells are rejected at once by B6 mice. Since TRAIL/APO-2L induces apoptosis by interacting with a variety of specific receptors, this rapid growth in both syngeneic and allogeneic mice may be the result of an immunosuppressive mechanism. The following evidence supports this hypothesis: 1) TSA-TRAIL cells overcome the strong immunity against TSA-pc cells elicited in BALB/c mice by preimmunization with TSA cells engineered to release IL-4; 2) their rejection by B6 mice does not prime a CTL-mediated memory; 3) thymidine uptake by T lymphocytes unstimulated or stimulated by allogeneic cells is inhibited when TSA-TRAIL cells are added as third party cells; 4) CTL kill TSA-pc but not TSA-TRAIL cells in 48-h assays; and 5) activated lymphocytes interacting with TSA-TRAIL cells in vivo and in vitro undergo apoptosis.

Functional analysis of T lymphocytes infiltrating the dermis and epidermis of post-burn hypertrophic scar tissues.

The cytokine profile of T cell clones (TCC) from the dermis and epidermis of burn patients with hypertrophic scars (HS) in active (AHS) and remission phases (RHS) was determined in this study. We found that AHS tissues are heavily infiltrated by Type 0-Type 1 polarized CD3+ lymphocytes producing high IFN-gamma and low IL-4 levels. Analysis of their surface marker phenotype showed that the high IFN-gamma production was shared equally between the CD4+ TCRalpha/beta and CD8+ TCRalpha/beta clones. The profile of TCC from RHS tissues revealed pronounced infiltration of Type 0-Type 1 polarized lymphocytes with an even more evident Type 1 profile. However, the levels of IFN-gamma produced by RHS-derived TCC were 4-6 times lower than those produced by AHS-derived TCC. These data show that high levels of IFN-gamma produced by Type 0-Type 1 lymphocytes infiltrating HS are a feature of AHS, whereas reduction of this ability to produce high levels of IFN-gamma, though without a shift towards a Type 0-Type 2 phenotype through an increase in IL-4, is characteristic of RHS.

Structural changes in spinal ganglion neurons of lizards after cold-exposure.

We studied structural changes in spinal ganglion neurons that occur in lizards exposed to the cold, both at the light and electron microscope levels. Two types of perikaryal changes were found in the cold-exposed animals: (a) In 25% of all ganglion neurons, the central region of the perikaryon was devoid of Nissl bodies and a narrow peripheral zone stained deeply basophilic. Electron microscopic examination of these cells showed that mitochondria, Golgi complexes and other organelles were assembled in the central region of the perikaryon, while most cisternae of granular endoplasmic reticulum and free polysomes were confined to the periphery of the perikaryon. These changes seem to take place mainly in dark neurons. (b) In 8.6% of all ganglion neurons, Nissl bodies were present throughout the perikaryon, but separated by large, clear spaces. Under the electron microscope, these clear spaces were filled with large numbers of densely packed filaments. It seems that mainly light neurons undergo this type of structural change. The degree of nuclear eccentricity was significantly greater in the neurons of cold-exposed animals than in controls. The nucleolar volume was significantly increased and both the percentages of nuclei with two nucleoli and of nuclei with 'vacuolated' nucleoli were significantly greater in neurons displaying structural changes than in the other neurons. The structural modifications observed in spinal ganglion neurons of cold-exposed lizards closely resemble those seen in the same lizard neurons following axonal section. They could be due to a) metabolic changes induced by low temperature and fasting, b) alterations in the flow of nerve impulses from the periphery, or c) impaired retrograde transport of trophic substances from the periphery to the cell body.