[Language Acquisition and Digital Media: State of the Art]. / Spracherwerb und digitale Medien: Eine Bestandsaufnahme.

Nowadays, digital media are already very present in childhood. Due to their language-based content and high attractiveness for children, they may offer a high potential for language promotion. However, in order for their effectiveness as language teachers, the content needs to be relevant for language promotion and to be attentively and repeatedly processed. This introduction sheds light on five criteria to evaluate the language-promoting potential of a digital medium and provides tips for accessibility and usage for children, families, and professionals.

In Bilinguals' Hands: Identification of Bilingual, Preverbal Infants at Risk for Language Delay.

Studies with monolingual infants show that the gestural behavior of 1-2-year-olds is a strong predictor for later language competencies and, more specifically, that the absence of index-finger pointing at 12 months seems to be a valid indicator for risk of language delay (LD). In this study a lack of index-finger pointing at 12 months was utilized as diagnostic criterion to identity infants with a high risk for LD at 24 months in a sample of 42 infants growing up bilingually. Results confirm earlier findings from monolinguals showing that 12-month-olds who point with the extended index finger have an advanced language status at 24 months and are less likely language delayed than infants who only point with the whole hand and do not produce index-finger points at 12 months.

How language skills and working memory capacities explain mathematical learning from preschool to primary school age: Insights from a longitudinal study.

Between the age span of 3 to 6 years the foundation for children's mathematical learning (i.e., numerical abilities and cognition) are laid. However, the developing relations between mathematical skills, language, and working memory starting at preschool age and evolving into primary school age are not well understood. Adopting an empirically validated analysis model, the present study examines in detail longitudinal interdependencies between mathematical skills, a wide range of language skills, and working memory components underlying the mathematical learning process of 41 German preschool children (41.5% female) spanning ages 4 to 6. Phonological processing skills and expressive grammar skills emerged as the most significant language skills for the process of children's mathematical learning across the investigated age span. Within the latter, children's phonological processing skills and expressive grammar skills were supported by children's word expression abilities. The phonological loop emerged as the most important working memory component for children's early mathematical learning between ages 4 to 6. Furthermore, a wide array of language skills were associated with complex information and storage processes within this mathematical learning process. In conclusion, the present findings provide a more detailed and deeper insight into the learning process of children's number concept, emphasizing the influence of phonological and particularly grammatical skills.

Developmental Paths of Pointing for Various Motives in Infants with and without Language Delay.

Pointing is one of the first conventional means of communication and infants have various motives for engaging in it such as imperative, declarative, or informative. Little is known about the developmental paths of producing and understanding these different motives. In our longitudinal study (N = 58) during the second year of life, we experimentally elicited infants' pointing production and comprehension in various settings and under pragmatically valid conditions. We followed two steps in our analyses and assessed the occurrence of canonical index-finger pointing for different motives and the engagement in an ongoing interaction in pursuit of a joint goal revealed by frequency and multimodal utterances. For understanding the developmental paths, we compared two groups: typically developing infants (TD) and infants who have been assessed as having delayed language development (LD). Results showed that the developmental paths differed according to the various motives. When comparing the two groups, for all motives, LD infants produced index-finger pointing 2 months later than TD infants. For the engagement, although the pattern was less consistent across settings, the frequency of pointing was comparable in both groups, but infants with LD used less canonical forms of pointing and made fewer multimodal contributions than TD children.

Acquisition of Mathematical and Linguistic Skills in Children With Learning Difficulties.

Comorbid learning difficulties in linguistic and mathematical skills often emerge in primary school age. The cause of coinciding of both learning difficulties during children's development spanning pre- and primary-school age is not yet well understood. To address this research gap, we used data from the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS; n = 301) of four groups of children which were categorized according to their skill levels in pre-school age: children with learning difficulties isolated in linguistic skills (LD), children with learning difficulties isolated in mathematical skills (MD), children with learning difficulties combined in linguistic and mathematical skills (MD/LD), and children with typical development in both skills (TA). Computing univariate and repeated measures ANCOVAs we compared the mathematical and linguistic development of the four groups of children (LD, MD, LD/MD, and TA) spanning age four to ten. Results reveal a partial catch-up in linguistic skills (lexical, grammatical) for children with LD. In contrast, children with MD did not overcome their mathematical competence gap in comparison with TA and LD. Moreover, children with MD showed a decrease in grammatical skills during transition in primary school. Further, children with MD/LD displayed the weakest performance in linguistic and mathematical skills during pre- and primary-school age in general. However, after controlling for working memory, initial performance differences between the groups decreased in favor of MD/LD. The relation between linguistic skills and mathematical skills in persisting learning difficulties as well as the specific role of working memory are discussed.

Integrated Communication System: Gesture and Language Acquisition in Typically Developing Children and Children With LD and DLD.

Gesture and language development are strongly connected to each other. Two types of gestures in particular are analyzed regarding their role for language acquisition: pointing and iconic gestures. With the present longitudinal study, the predictive values of index-finger pointing at 12 months and the comprehension of iconic gestures at 3;0 years for later language skills in typically developing (TD) children and in children with a language delay (LD) or developmental language disorder (DLD) are examined. Forty-two monolingual German children and their primary caregivers participated in the study and were followed longitudinally from 1;0 to 6;0 years. Within a total of 14 observation sessions, the gestural and language abilities of the children were measured using standardized as well as ad hoc tests, parent questionnaires and semi-natural interactions between the child and their caregivers. At the age of 2;0 years, 10 of the 42 children were identified as having a LD. The ability to point with the extended index finger at 1;0 year is predictive for language skills at 5;0 and 6;0 years. This predictive effect is mediated by the language skills of the children at 3;0 years. The comprehension of iconic gestures at 3;0 years correlates with index-finger pointing at 1;0 year and also with earlier and later language skills. It mediates the predictive value of index-finger pointing at 1;0 year for grammar skills at 5;0 and 6;0 years. Children with LD develop the ability to understand the iconicity in gestures later than TD children and score lower in language tests until the age of 6;0 years. The language differences between these two groups of children persist partially until the age of 5;0 years even when the two children with manifested DLD within the group of children with LD are excluded from analyses. Beyond that age, no differences in the language skills between children with and without a history of LD are found when children with a manifest DLD are excluded. The findings support the assumption of an integrated speech-gesture communication system, which functions similarly in TD children and children with LD or DLD, but with a time delay.

Decontextualized talk in caregivers' input to 12-month-old children during structured interaction.

Decontextualized talk is assumed to be used only rarely when children are younger than 30 months. Motivated by Bühler's (1934/1999) linguistic theory that describes different dimensions of (de-)contextualization, we provide evidence that this kind of input can already be found in caregivers' talking to their 12-month-old children. Such early input is characterized by being decontextualized on some dimensions while being grounded in the immediate context on others. In this way, parents may scaffold understanding of talk about the there-and-then. We also examined whether caregivers adapt decontextualized verbal input to individual trajectories in language development. We observed 59 parent-child interactions within a decorated room when children were 12 months old, and assessed the children's linguistic development at 12 and 24 months of age. However, we did not find differences in the input directed toward children with different trajectories in language development.

Walking, pointing, talking - the predictive value of early walking and pointing behavior for later language skills.

Both walking abilities and pointing gestures in infants are associated with later language skills. Within this longitudinal study we investigate the relationship between walk onset and first observed index-finger points and their respectively predictive value for later language skills. We assume that pointing as a motor as well as a communicative skill is a stronger predictor of later language development than walk onset. Direct observations, parent questionnaires, and standardized tests were administered in 45 children at ages 1;0, 2;0, 3;0, and 4;0. Results show that both walk onset and early index-finger pointing predict language abilities at age 2;0, but only early index-finger pointing predicts language skills at ages 3;0 and 4;0. Walk onset seems to contribute to an initial increase in language acquisition without a sustained advantage. The predictive value of first observed index-finger points, however, is strong and lasts at least until age 4;0.

Development of Pointing Gestures in Children With Typical and Delayed Language Acquisition.

Purpose: This longitudinal study compared the development of hand and index-finger pointing in children with typical language development (TD) and children with language delay (LD). First, we examined whether the number and the form of pointing gestures during the second year of life are potential indicators of later LD. Second, we analyzed the influence of caregivers' gestural and verbal input on children's communicative development. Method: Thirty children with TD and 10 children with LD were observed together with their primary caregivers in a seminatural setting in 5 sessions between the ages of 12 and 21 months. Language skills were assessed at 24 months. Results: Compared with children with TD, children with LD used fewer index-finger points at 12 and 14 months but more pointing gestures in total at 21 months. There were no significant differences in verbal or gestural input between caregivers of children with or without LD. Conclusions: Using more index-finger points at the beginning of the second year of life is associated with TD, whereas using more pointing gestures at the end of the second year of life is associated with delayed acquisition. Neither the verbal nor gestural input of caregivers accounted for differences in children's skills.

ISi-Speech: A Digital Training System for Acquired Dysarthria.

Speech impairment like dysarthria poses a major risk to participation in society due to reduced speech intelligibility. This paper focuses on the ongoing development of the technology-based pilot training system, ISi-Speech, for treatment of dysarthria incorporating automatic speech recognition, a psychological model of motivation and evidence-based exercises.

How Movies Shape Students' Attitudes Toward Individuals with Schizophrenia: An Exploration of the Relationships between Entertainment Experience and Stigmatization.

Mass media shape not only public, but also healthcare professionals' attitudes towards individuals with a mental illness. This study investigates how watching a movie about schizophrenia affects stigma-related attitudes of rehabilitation science students, who are likely to work with affected individuals. Participants watched an entertainment movie portrayal of schizophrenia. Stigma-related attitudes and social distance were assessed one week before watching the movie, directly afterwards, and one week later. No significant differences in stigmatization emerged between viewers and non-viewers. Enjoyment, appreciation, and general movie evaluation mediated viewers' transportation into the story on changes in stigmatization. Results are discussed with respect to media effects on stigma-related attitudes and their implications for mental health nursing practice and education.

In Infants' Hands: Identification of Preverbal Infants at Risk for Primary Language Delay.

Early identification of primary language delay is crucial to implement effective prevention programs. Available screening instruments are based on parents' reports and have only insufficient predictive validity. This study employed observational measures of preverbal infants' gestural communication to test its predictive validity for identifying later language delays. Pointing behavior of fifty-nine 12-month-old infants was analyzed and related to their language skills 1 year later. Results confirm predictive validity of preverbal communication for language skills with the hand shape of pointing being superior compared to the underlying motives for pointing (imperative vs. declarative). Twelve-month-olds who pointed only with their open hand but never with their index finger were at risk for primary language delay at 2 years of age.

Multimodality and interactivity: connecting properties of serious games with educational outcomes.

Serious games have become an important genre of digital media and are often acclaimed for their potential to enhance deeper learning because of their unique technological properties. Yet the discourse has largely remained at a conceptual level. For an empirical evaluation of educational games, extra effort is needed to separate intertwined and confounding factors in order to manipulate and thus attribute the outcome to one property independent of another. This study represents one of the first attempts to empirically test the educational impact of two important properties of serious games, multimodality and interactivity, through a partial 2 x 3 (interactive, noninteractive by high, moderate, low in multimodality) factorial between-participants follow-up experiment. Results indicate that both multimodality and interactivity contribute to educational outcomes individually. Implications for educational strategies and future research directions are discussed.

Addressing media stigma for people experiencing mental illness using an entertainment-education strategy.

This study examines the effects of Entertainment-Education strategy on knowledge acquisition about schizophrenia and stigma reduction, using pretest posttest control group and 2 X 3 (advocate's perspective X message style) between-subjects factorial design. Participants watched an accurate and empathetic movie portrayal of schizophrenia, followed by an educational trailer. Participants (N= 165) were randomly assigned to one of eight conditions (six manipulated conditions, control, a group who watched a trailer prior to the movie). Results showed that viewing an accurate and empathetic movie portrayal increased knowledge. The educational trailer increased not only knowledge acquisition but influenced stigma reduction. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that entertainment and educational value of the movie mediated stigma reduction. Implications of this study to the mental health research and the design of Entertainment-Education contents are discussed.