Small extracellular vesicles administered directly in the brain promote neuroprotection and decreased microglia reactivity in a stroke mouse model.

Herein, we investigate the bioactivity of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), focusing on their local effect in the brain. sEVs from mononuclear cells (MNCs) showed superior effects in vitro to sEVs from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and were able to promote neuroprotection and decrease microglia reactivity in a stroke mouse model.

Septin-microtubule association via a motif unique to isoform 1 of septin 9 tunes stress fibers.

Septins, a family of GTP-binding proteins that assemble into higher order structures, interface with the membrane, actin filaments and microtubules, and are thus important regulators of cytoarchitecture. Septin 9 (SEPT9), which is frequently overexpressed in tumors and mutated in hereditary neuralgic amyotrophy (HNA), mediates the binding of septins to microtubules, but the molecular determinants of this interaction remained uncertain. We demonstrate that a short microtubule-associated protein (MAP)-like motif unique to SEPT9 isoform 1 (SEPT9_i1) drives septin octamer-microtubule interaction in cells and in vitro reconstitutions. Septin-microtubule association requires polymerizable septin octamers harboring SEPT9_i1. Although outside of the MAP-like motif, HNA mutations abrogate this association, identifying a putative regulatory domain. Removal of this domain from SEPT9_i1 sequesters septins on microtubules, promotes microtubule stability and alters actomyosin fiber distribution and tension. Thus, we identify key molecular determinants and potential regulatory roles of septin-microtubule interaction, paving the way to deciphering the mechanisms underlying septin-associated pathologies. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Microglial Extracellular Vesicles as Vehicles for Neurodegeneration Spreading.

Microglial cells are the neuroimmune competent cells of the central nervous system. In the adult, microglia are responsible for screening the neuronal parenchyma searching for alterations in homeostasis. Chronic neuroinflammation plays a role in neurodegenerative disease. Indeed, microglia-mediated neuroinflammation is involved in the onset and progression of several disorders in the brain and retina. Microglial cell reactivity occurs in an orchestrated manner and propagates across the neural parenchyma spreading the neuroinflammatory signal from cell to cell. Extracellular vesicles are important vehicles of intercellular communication and act as message carriers across boundaries. Extracellular vesicles can be subdivided in several categories according to their cellular origin (apoptotic bodies, microvesicles and exosomes), each presenting, different but sometimes overlapping functions in cell communication. Mounting evidence suggests a role for extracellular vesicles in regulating microglial cell action. Herein, we explore the role of microglial extracellular vesicles as vehicles for cell communication and the mechanisms that trigger their release. In this review we covered the role of microglial extracellular vesicles, focusing on apoptotic bodies, microvesicles and exosomes, in the context of neurodegeneration and the impact of these vesicles derived from other cells in microglial cell reactivity.

Evolutionary and expression analyses reveal a pattern of ancient duplications and functional specializations in the diversification of the Downstream of Kinase (DOK) genes.

Downstream of Kinase (DOK) proteins represent a multigenic family of adaptors that includes negative regulators of immune cell signaling. Using phylogenetics and intron/exon structure data, we show here that the seven human DOK genes (DOK1 to DOK7) form three highly divergent groups that emerged before the protostome-deuterostome split: DOK1/2/3, DOK4/5/6, and DOK7. For two of these three groups (DOK1/2/3 and DOK4/5/6), further gene duplications occurred in vertebrates and so while chordates only have three DOK genes, vertebrates have seven DOK genes over the three groups. From our expression analysis in humans, we show that each group of DOK genes has a distinct pattern of expression. The DOK1/2/3 group is immune specific, yet each of the three genes in the group has a distinct pattern of expression in immune cells. This immune specificity could thus be ancestral, with the DOK1/2/3 gene also being immune-related in protostomes. The DOK4/5/6 and DOK7 groups represent genes that are much less expressed in immune system than the DOK1/2/3 group. Interestingly, we identify a novel tyrosine based motif that is specific to the vertebrate DOK4/5/6 sequences. The evolution of the DOK genes is thus marked by a pattern of ancient duplications and functional specializations.

Reactivating the extracellular matrix synthesis of sulfated glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans to improve the human skin aspect and its mechanical properties.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to demonstrate that a defined cosmetic composition is able to induce an increase in the production of sulfated glycosaminoglycans (sGAGs) and/or proteoglycans and finally to demonstrate that the composition, through its combined action of enzyme production and synthesis of macromolecules, modulates organization and skin surface aspect with a benefit in antiaging applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Gene expression was studied by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction using normal human dermal fibroblasts isolated from a 45-year-old donor skin dermis. De novo synthesis of sGAGs and proteoglycans was determined using Blyscan™ assay and/or immunohistochemical techniques. These studies were performed on normal human dermal fibroblasts (41- and 62-year-old donors) and on human skin explants. Dermis organization was studied either ex vivo on skin explants using bi-photon microscopy and transmission electron microscopy or directly in vivo on human volunteers by ultrasound technique. Skin surface modification was investigated in vivo using silicone replicas coupled with macrophotography, and the mechanical properties of the skin were studied using Cutometer. RESULTS: It was first shown that mRNA expression of several genes involved in the synthesis pathway of sGAG was stimulated. An increase in the de novo synthesis of sGAGs was shown at the cellular level despite the age of cells, and this phenomenon was clearly related to the previously observed stimulation of mRNA expression of genes. An increase in the expression of the corresponding core protein of decorin, perlecan, and versican and a stimulation of their respective sGAGs, such as chondroitin sulfate and heparan sulfate, were found on skin explants. The biosynthesis of macromolecules seems to be correlated at the microscopic level to a better organization and quality of the dermis, with collagen fibrils having homogenous diameters. The dermis seems to be compacted as observed on images obtained by two-photon microscopy and ultrasound imaging. At the macroscopic level, this dermis organization shows a smoothed profile similar to a younger skin, with improved mechanical properties such as firmess. CONCLUSION: The obtained results demonstrate that the defined cosmetic composition induces the synthesis of sGAGs and proteoglycans, which contributes to the overall dermal reorganization. This activity in the dermis in turn impacts the surface and mechanical properties of the skin.

CD8 T cell-mediated killing of orexinergic neurons induces a narcolepsy-like phenotype in mice.

Narcolepsy with cataplexy is a rare and severe sleep disorder caused by the destruction of orexinergic neurons in the lateral hypothalamus. The genetic and environmental factors associated with narcolepsy, together with serologic data, collectively point to an autoimmune origin. The current animal models of narcolepsy, based on either disruption of the orexinergic neurotransmission or neurons, do not allow study of the potential autoimmune etiology. Here, we sought to generate a mouse model that allows deciphering of the immune mechanisms leading to orexin(+) neuron loss and narcolepsy development. We generated mice expressing the hemagglutinin (HA) as a "neo-self-antigen" specifically in hypothalamic orexin(+) neurons (called Orex-HA), which were transferred with effector neo-self-antigen-specific T cells to assess whether an autoimmune process could be at play in narcolepsy. Given the tight association of narcolepsy with the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) HLA-DQB1*06:02 allele, we first tested the pathogenic contribution of CD4 Th1 cells. Although these T cells readily infiltrated the hypothalamus and triggered local inflammation, they did not elicit the loss of orexin(+) neurons or clinical manifestations of narcolepsy. In contrast, the transfer of cytotoxic CD8 T cells (CTLs) led to both T-cell infiltration and specific destruction of orexin(+) neurons. This phenotype was further aggravated upon repeated injections of CTLs. In situ, CTLs interacted directly with MHC class I-expressing orexin(+) neurons, resulting in cytolytic granule polarization toward neurons. Finally, drastic neuronal loss caused manifestations mimicking human narcolepsy, such as cataplexy and sleep attacks. This work demonstrates the potential role of CTLs as final effectors of the immunopathological process in narcolepsy.

Iontophoresis Transcorneal Delivery Technique for Transepithelial Corneal Collagen Crosslinking With Riboflavin in a Rabbit Model.

PURPOSE: We compared an iontophoresis riboflavin delivery technique for transepithelial corneal collagen crosslinking (I-CXL) with a conventional CXL (C-CXL). METHODS: We designed three experimental sets using 152 New Zealand rabbits to study riboflavin application by iontophoresis using charged riboflavin solution (Ricrolin+) with a 1-mA current for 5 minutes. The first set was to compare riboflavin concentration measured by HPLC in corneas after iontophoresis or conventional riboflavin application. The second set was to analyze autofluorescence and stromal collagen modification immediately and 14 days after I-CXL or C-CXL, by using nonlinear two-photon microscopy (TP) and second harmonic generation (SHG). In the third set, physical modifications after I-CXL and C-CXL were evaluated by stress-strain measurements and by studying corneal resistance against collagenase digestion. RESULTS: Based on HPLC analysis, we found that iontophoresis allowed riboflavin diffusion with 2-fold less riboflavin concentration than conventional application (936.2 ± 312.5 and 1708 ± 908.3 ng/mL, respectively, P < 0.05). Corneal TP and SHG imaging revealed that I-CXL and C-CXL resulted in a comparable increased anterior and median stromal autofluorescence and collagen packing. The stress at 10% strain showed a similar stiffness of corneas treated by I-CXL or C-CXL (631.9 ± 241.5 and 680.3 ± 216.4 kPa, respectively, P = 0.908). Moreover, we observed an increased resistance against corneal collagenase digestion after I-CXL and C-CXL (61.90% ± 5.28% and 72.21% ± 4.32% of remaining surface, respectively, P = 0.154). CONCLUSIONS: This experimental study suggests that I-CXL is a promising alternative methodology for riboflavin delivery in crosslinking treatments, preserving the epithelium.

A biased competition theory of cytotoxic T lymphocyte interaction with tumor nodules.

The dynamics of the interaction between Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes (CTL) and tumor cells has been addressed in depth, in particular using numerical simulations. However, stochastic mathematical models that take into account the competitive interaction between CTL and tumors undergoing immunoediting, a process of tumor cell escape from immunesurveillance, are presently missing. Here, we introduce a stochastic dynamical particle interaction model based on experimentally measured parameters that allows to describe CTL function during immunoediting. The model describes the competitive interaction between CTL and melanoma cell nodules and allows temporal and two-dimensional spatial progression. The model is designed to provide probabilistic estimates of tumor eradication through numerical simulations in which tunable parameters influencing CTL efficacy against a tumor nodule undergoing immunoediting are tested. Our model shows that the rate of CTL/tumor nodule productive collisions during the initial time of interaction determines the success of CTL in tumor eradication. It allows efficient cytotoxic function before the tumor cells acquire a substantial resistance to CTL attack, due to mutations stochastically occurring during cell division. Interestingly, a bias in CTL motility inducing a progressive attraction towards a few scout CTL, which have detected the nodule enhances early productive collisions and tumor eradication. Taken together, our results are compatible with a biased competition theory of CTL function in which CTL efficacy against a tumor nodule undergoing immunoediting is strongly dependent on guidance of CTL trajectories by scout siblings. They highlight unprecedented aspects of immune cell behavior that might inspire new CTL-based therapeutic strategies against tumors.

A novel mutation of the HNF1B gene associated with hypoplastic glomerulocystic kidney disease and neonatal renal failure: a case report and mutation update.

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 beta (HNF1B) plays an important role in embryonic development, namely in the kidney, pancreas, liver, genital tract, and gut. Heterozygous germline mutations of HNF1B are associated with the renal cysts and diabetes syndrome (RCAD). Affected individuals may present a variety of renal developmental abnormalities and/or maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY). A Portuguese 19-month-old male infant was evaluated due to hypoplastic glomerulocystic kidney disease and renal dysfunction diagnosed in the neonatal period that progressed to stage 5 chronic renal disease during the first year of life. His mother was diagnosed with a solitary hypoplastic microcystic left kidney at age 20, with stage 2 chronic renal disease established at age 35, and presented bicornuate uterus, pancreatic atrophy, and gestational diabetes. DNA sequence analysis of HNF1B revealed a novel germline frameshift insertion (c.110_111insC or c.110dupC) in both the child and the mother. A review of the literature revealed a total of 106 different HNF1B mutations, in 236 mutation-positive families, comprising gross deletions (34%), missense mutations (31%), frameshift deletions or insertions (15%), nonsense mutations (11%), and splice-site mutations (8%). The study of this family with an unusual presentation of hypoplastic glomerulocystic kidney disease with neonatal renal dysfunction identified a previously unreported mutation of the HNF1B gene, thereby expanding the spectrum of known mutations associated with renal developmental disorders.

Mast cells form antibody-dependent degranulatory synapse for dedicated secretion and defence.

Mast cells are tissue-resident immune cells that play a key role in inflammation and allergy. Here we show that interaction of mast cells with antibody-targeted cells induces the polarized exocytosis of their granules resulting in a sustained exposure of effector enzymes, such as tryptase and chymase, at the cell-cell contact site. This previously unidentified mast cell effector mechanism, which we name the antibody-dependent degranulatory synapse (ADDS), is triggered by both IgE- and IgG-targeted cells. ADDSs take place within an area of cortical actin cytoskeleton clearance in the absence of microtubule organizing centre and Golgi apparatus repositioning towards the stimulating cell. Remarkably, IgG-mediated degranulatory synapses also occur upon contact with opsonized Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites resulting in tryptase-dependent parasite death. Our results broaden current views of mast cell degranulation by revealing that human mast cells form degranulatory synapses with antibody-targeted cells and pathogens for dedicated secretion and defence.

Treatment of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in adolescent patients.

The authors describe 2 pediatric patients with drug-resistant tuberculosis in whom new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches were crucial to good clinical evolution. Although there was good clinical outcome, important side effects with linezolid and amikacin occurred, namely medullary hypoplasia and neurosensorial hypoacusia, respectively. A multidisciplinary approach with close follow up was of major importance in managing these patients.

Lymphatic endothelium forms integrin-engaging 3D structures during DC transit across inflamed lymphatic vessels.

Dendritic cell (DC) transmigration across the lymphatic endothelium is critical for the initiation and sustenance of immune responses. Under noninflammatory conditions, DC transit across the lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) has been shown to be integrin independent. In contrast, there is increasing evidence for the participation of integrins and their ligands in DC transit across lymphatic endothelium under inflammation. In this sense, we describe the formation of ICAM-1 (CD54)-enriched three-dimensional structures on LEC/DC contacts, as these DCs adhere to inflamed skin lymphatic vessels and transmigrate into them. In vitro imaging revealed that under inflammation ICAM-1 accumulated on microvilli projections surrounding 60% of adhered DCs. In contrast, these structures were scarcely formed in noninflammatory conditions. Furthermore, ICAM-1-enriched microvilli were important in promoting DC transendothelial migration and DC crawling over the LEC surface. Microvilli formation was dependent on the presence of ß-integrins on the DC side and on integrin conformational affinity to ligand. Finally, we observed that LEC microvilli structures appeared in close vicinity of CCL21 depots and that their assembly was partially inhibited by CCL21-neutralizing antibodies. Therefore, under inflammatory conditions, integrin ligands form three-dimensional membrane projections around DCs. These structures offer docking sites for DC transit from the tissue toward the lymphatic vessel lumen.

Reciprocal polarization of T and B cells at the immunological synapse.

Cognate interactions between T and B lymphocytes lead to the formation of the immunological synapse (IS) where bidirectional activation signals are exchanged. Although the molecular architecture and the function of the IS have been studied extensively on the T cell side, little is known about events occurring during synapse formation in Ag-presenting B cells. We investigated the impact of BCR and TLR signaling on human B cell activation and on the T and B cell side of the IS. On the T cell side, we observed that T cells polarized toward both naive and previously activated B cells. Nevertheless, when T cells interacted with different B cells simultaneously, T cells selectively polarized their secretory machinery toward preactivated B cells. Furthermore, both naive and preactivated B cells reoriented their microtubule-organizing center toward the synaptic T cell during cognate interactions. This phenomenon was rapid and not dependent on T cell secretory activity. Interestingly, not only the microtubule-organizing center but also the Golgi apparatus and Lamp-3(+) and MHC class II(+) vesicles all repositioned beneath the IS, suggesting that the entire endocytic/exocytic B cell compartment was reoriented toward the T cell. Taken together, our results show that the B cell activation status fine-tunes T cell polarization responses and reveal the capacity of naive and activated B cells to polarize toward T cells during cognate interactions.

Activation of the ancestral polarity regulator protein kinase C zeta at the immunological synapse drives polarization of Th cell secretory machinery toward APCs.

A key feature in T lymphocyte biology is that Th cells rapidly polarize their secretory machinery toward cognate APCs. The molecular mechanisms of these dynamic Th cell responses and their impact on APC biology remain to be elucidated. In this study, we demonstrate that protein kinase Czeta (PKCzeta) is rapidly activated at the immunological synapse (IS) in human Th cells interacting with cognate dendritic cells (DCs) and that a functional PKCzeta is required for the polarization of Th cell secretory machinery toward DCs. We also show that PKCzeta-dependent Th cell polarization allows dedicated delivery of IFN-gamma and CD40L at the IS and is required for the activation of cognate DCs to IL-12 production. PKCzeta synaptic activation is a low-threshold phenomenon and, in Th cells interacting with multiple DCs, selectively occurs at the IS formed with the DCs offering the strongest stimulus leading to dedicated Th cell polarization. Our results identify the PKCzeta signaling pathway as a key component of the Th cell polarization machinery and provide a molecular basis for T cell-dedicated activation of cognate DCs.

Lipomatose Simétrica Múltipla. Apresentaçäo de um caso / Multiple symmetrical lipomatosis. A case report

A lipomatose simétrica múltipla é uma doença de rara incidência, tendo sido descrita pela primeira vez no final do século XIX. Caracteriza-se por acúmulo localizado de tecido gorduroso, com crescimento irregular e prolongado. Predomina no adulto de meia-idade, acometendo sobre-tudo regiöes do pescoço, nuca, ombros e cintura pélvica. Há associaçäo com ingestäo prolongada de bebidas alcoólicas.