Comparing the copper binding features of alpha and beta synucleins.

Amyloid aggregation of α-synuclein (AS) is one of the hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD). Copper ions specifically bind at the N-terminus of AS, accelerating protein aggregation. Its protein homolog ß-synuclein (BS) is also a copper binding protein, but it inhibits AS aggregation. Here, a comparative spectroscopic study of the Cu2+ binding properties of AS and BS has been performed, using electronic absorption, circular dichroism (CD) and electronic paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Our comparative spectroscopic study reveals striking similarities between the Cu2+ binding features of the two proteins. The Cu2+ binding site at the N-terminal group of BS protein, modeled by the BS (1-15) fragment is identical to that of AS; however, its rate of reduction is three times faster as compared to the AS site, consistent with BS having an additional Met residue in its Met1-Xn-Met5-Xn-Met10 motif. The latter is also evident in the cyclic voltammetry studies of the Cu-BS complex. On the other hand, the Cu2+ binding features of the His site in both proteins, as modeled by AS(45-55) and BS(60-70), are identical, indicating that the shift in the His position does not affect its coordination features. Finally, replacement of Glu46 by Ala does not alter Cu2+ binding to the His site, suggesting that the familial PD E46K mutation would not impact copper-induced aggregation. While further studies of the redox activity of copper bound to His50 in AS are required to understand the role of this site in metal-mediated aggregation, our study contributes to a better understanding of the bioinorganic chemistry of PD.

Role of N-terminal methionine residues in the redox activity of copper bound to alpha-synuclein.

Amyloid aggregation of α-synuclein (AS) is one of the hallmarks of Parkinson's disease. The interaction of copper ions with the N-terminal region of AS promotes its amyloid aggregation and metal-catalyzed oxidation has been proposed as a plausible mechanism. The AS(1-6) fragment represents the minimal sequence that models copper coordination to this intrinsically disordered protein. In this study, we evaluated the role of methionine residues Met1 and Met5 in Cu(II) coordination to the AS(1-6) fragment, and in the redox activity of the Cu-AS(1-6) complex. Spectroscopic and electronic structure calculations show that Met1 may play a role as an axial ligand in the Cu(II)-AS(1-6) complex, while Met5 does not participate in metal coordination. Cyclic voltammetry and reactivity studies demonstrate that Met residues play an important role in the reduction and reoxidation processes of this complex. However, Met1 plays a more important role than Met5, as substitution of Met1 by Ile decreases the reduction potential of the Cu-AS(1-6) complex by ~80 mV, causing a significant decrease in its rate of reduction. Reoxidation of the complex by oxygen results in oxidation of the Met residues to sulfoxide, being Met1 more susceptible to copper-catalyzed oxidation than Met5. The sulfoxide species can suffer elimination of methanesulfenic acid, rendering a peptide with no thioether moiety, which would impair the ability of AS to bind Cu(I) ions. Overall, our study underscores the important roles that Met1 plays in copper coordination and the reactivity of the Cu-AS complex.

Site-specific copper-catalyzed oxidation of α-synuclein: tightening the link between metal binding and protein oxidative damage in Parkinson's disease.

Amyloid aggregation of α-synuclein (AS) has been linked to the pathological effects associated with Parkinson's disease (PD). Cu(II) binds specifically at the N-terminus of AS and triggers its aggregation. Site-specific Cu(I)-catalyzed oxidation of AS has been proposed as a plausible mechanism for metal-enhanced AS amyloid formation. In this study, Cu(I) binding to AS was probed by NMR spectroscopy, in combination with synthetic peptide models, site-directed mutagenesis, and C-terminal-truncated protein variants. Our results demonstrate that both Met residues in the motif (1)MDVFM(5) constitute key structural determinants for the high-affinity binding of Cu(I) to the N-terminal region of AS. The replacement of one Met residue by Ile causes a dramatic decrease in the binding affinity for Cu(I), whereas the removal of both Met residues results in a complete lack of binding. Moreover, these Met residues can be oxidized rapidly after air exposure of the AS-Cu(I) complex, whereas Met-116 and Met-127 in the C-terminal region remain unaffected. Met-1 displays higher susceptibility to oxidative damage compared to Met-5 because it is directly involved in both Cu(II) and Cu(I) coordination, resulting in closer exposure to the reactive oxygen species that may be generated by the redox cycling of copper. Our findings support a mechanism where the interaction of AS with copper ions leads to site-specific metal-catalyzed oxidation in the protein under physiologically relevant conditions. In light of recent biological findings, these results support a role for AS-copper interactions in neurodegeneration in PD.

Bioinorganic chemistry of Parkinson's disease: structural determinants for the copper-mediated amyloid formation of alpha-synuclein.

The aggregation of alpha-synuclein (AS) is a critical step in the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). A central, unresolved question in the pathophysiology of PD relates to the role of AS-metal interactions in amyloid fibril formation and neurodegeneration. Our previous works established a hierarchy in alpha-synuclein-metal ion interactions, where Cu(II) binds specifically to the protein and triggers its aggregation under conditions that might be relevant for the development of PD. Two independent, non-interacting copper-binding sites were identified at the N-terminal region of AS, with significant difference in their affinities for the metal ion. In this work we have solved unknown details related to the structural binding specificity and aggregation enhancement mediated by Cu(II). The high-resolution structural characterization of the highest affinity N-terminus AS-Cu(II) complex is reported here. Through the measurement of AS aggregation kinetics we proved conclusively that the copper-enhanced AS amyloid formation is a direct consequence of the formation of the AS-Cu(II) complex at the highest affinity binding site. The kinetic behavior was not influenced by the His residue at position 50, arguing against an active role for this residue in the structural and biological events involved in the mechanism of copper-mediated AS aggregation. These new findings are central to elucidate the mechanism through which the metal ion participates in the fibrillization of AS and represent relevant progress in the understanding of the bioinorganic chemistry of PD.