Effects of six-week stroboscopic training program on visuomotor reaction speed in goal-directed movements in young volleyball players: a study focusing on agility performance.

BACKGROUND: In team sports, deficits in visuomotor reaction speed are considered a significant and modifiable risk factor that can lead to decreased performance and an increased risk of injuries. Thus, identifying effective methods to enhance visuomotor abilities is crucial. The main objective of this research was to investigate the impact of a six-week stroboscopic intervention on visuomotor reaction speed in goal-directed specific movements based on agility among young volleyball players. Additionally, the study aimed to explore the impact of saccade dynamics on visuomotor reaction speed performance throughout the experiment. METHODS: There were 50 athletes (26 males and 24 females) with an average age of 16.5 years (± 0.6) who participated in this study. Over a six-week training period, athletes performed volleyball-specific training either wearing stroboscopic glasses (intervention) or under normal visual conditions (control). Prior to and after the training period, the agility tests based on change-of-direction speed (CODS) and reactive agility (RA) were used to identify visuomotor reaction speed performance. To measure agility performance a five-repetition shuttle run to gates was conducted. The REAC-INDEX, which represents visuomotor reaction speed, was analyzed as the resulting difference between the CODS test and the RA test. To elicit saccadic dynamics, a laboratory visual search task was performed. RESULTS: A significant GROUP×TIME interaction was observed for the REAC-INDEX (p = 0.012, ηp2 = 0.13). ANCOVA analyses revealed significant GROUP differences, indicating improved post-training REAC-INDEX results (p = 0.004, d = 0.87), regardless of gender. Training-induced modulations in saccade acceleration did not reach significance, but a significant relationship was observed between changes in saccade acceleration and changes in the REAC-INDEX (r = -0.281, p = 0.048), indicating that higher performance gains following training were associated with a stronger increase in saccade acceleration. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that stroboscopic training effectively enhances visuomotor reaction speed in goal-directed movements based on agility. Furthermore, visuomotor reaction speed gains could potentially be mediated by saccade dynamics. These findings provide valuable insights into the effectiveness of stroboscopic eyewear for training sport-specific visuomotor skills among young volleyball players.

In which rounds were the most rotations of key players made, and how did this affect physical activity? Analysis of the eight best teams of the 2018 FIFA world cup Russia.

BACKGROUND: Team management, especially player selection, rotation, and availability, are critical issues when dealing with the high demands of modern training and gameplay. As such, research continuously seeks ways to improve these actions or implement new ideas to gain a competitive advantage through the rotation of players in the starting line-up. The current study aimed to examine the rounds of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia in which the most rotations of key players were made and how this affected physical activity. METHODS: The sample consisted of 110 players from the top eight teams in the 2018 World Cup Russia who played entire matches for up to 90 min in seven consecutive games. All players were divided into key players (KPs, n = 58) and non-key players (NKPs, n = 52). The analysis used data collected by an advanced motion analysis system known as STATS®, with physical activity variables analyzed, including total distance covered (TDC), distance covered with high intensity over 20 km/h (HIR), and the number of sprints undertaken. In statistical analysis, differences between categories and consecutive matches were calculated using the Kruskal-Wallis H test, and if a significant effect size was found, a multiple comparisons p values test was performed. RESULTS: The best teams at the 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia used the most KP rotations with NKPs in the third match of the group stage. In addition, this was even more visible among more successful teams than less successful teams. The rotation strategy among the best eight teams allowed them to maintain the physical activity of KPs and NKPs in all rounds of the tournament. CONCLUSIONS: Coaches and coaching staff should incorporate squad rotation that includes a large group of players in their team management to improve their success. Team management expertise in player rotation during matches played over congested schedules at top tournaments maintains high levels of physical activity indicators (TDC, HIR, and sprints).

The effects of high-intensity interval training at the anaerobic and psychomotor fatigue thresholds on physiological parameters in young soccer players: a prospective study.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 4-week specific high-intensity interval training (HIIT) program performed between the anaerobic threshold (ANT) and the psychomotor fatigue threshold (PFT) on physiological parameters in 14 professional soccer players at the under-17 level. The first and second stages of the research protocol included a treadmill running exercise with increasing load and six 3-min four-versus-four games of soccer with a 3-min break between games. Players then participated in a training microcycle involving three specific HIIT exercises twice per week for 4 weeks, after which they repeated stages one and two, followed by an assessment of changes. The measurement of lactate (LA) determined ANT, whereas the choice reaction time (CRT) indicated PFT among other selected physiological parameters. The repeated-measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) compared mean values for the examined variables using Bonferroni post hoc test. It demonstrated significantly increased maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) from 45.9 ± 3.0 to 48.7 ± 2.6 at the ANT and from 49.1 ± 3.4 to 52.0 ± 3.6 on the PFT after 4 weeks of training. A significant increase in the running speed (RS) at both thresholds and heart rate (HR) at the ANT (p ≤ 0.05) was also recorded. Moreover, the players exceeded their intensity of effort during ANT while playing four-versus-four soccer matches, but they did not reach intensity during PFT. In conclusion, the findings of the study demonstrated that both thresholds shifted toward higher loads and the proposed specific HIIT effectively increased the exercise capacity of soccer players.

Effects of in-situ stroboscopic training on visual, visuomotor and reactive agility in youth volleyball players.

Background: Stroboscopic training is based on an exercise with intermittent visual stimuli that force a greater demand on the visuomotor processing for improving performance under normal vision. While the stroboscopic effect is used as an effective tool to improve information processing in general perceptual-cognitive tasks, there is still a lack of research focused on identifying training protocols for sport-specific settings. Therefore, we aimed at assessing the effects of in-situ stroboscopic training on visual, visuomotor and reactive agility in young volleyball players. Methods: Fifty young volleyball athletes (26 males and 24 females; mean age, 16.5 ± 0.6 years) participated in this study and were each divided randomly into an experimental group and a control group, who then both performed identical volleyball-specific tasks, with the experimental group under stroboscopic influence. The participants were evaluated three times using laboratory based tests for simple and complex reaction speed, sensory sensitivity and saccade dynamics; before the after the 6-week-long training (short-term effect) and 4 weeks later (long-term effect). In addition, a field test investigated the effects of the training on reactive agility. Results: A significant TIME vs GROUP effect was observed for (1) simple motor time (p = 0.020, ηp2 = 0.08), with improvement in the stroboscopic group in the post-test and retention test (p = 0.003, d = 0.42 and p = 0.027, d = 0.35, respectively); (2) complex reaction speed (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.22), with a large post-test effect in the stroboscopic group (p < 0.001, d = 0.87) and a small effect in the non-stroboscopic group (p = 0.010, d = 0.31); (3) saccade dynamics (p = 0.011, ηp2 = 0.09), with post-hoc tests in the stroboscopic group not reaching significance (p = 0.083, d = 0.54); and (4) reactive agility (p = 0.039, ηp2 = 0.07), with a post-test improvement in the stroboscopic group (p = 0.017, d = 0.49). Neither sensory sensitivity nor simple reaction time was statistically significantly affected as a result of the training (p > 0.05). A significant TIME vs GENDER effect was observed for saccadic dynamics (p = 0.003, ηp2 = 0.226) and reactive agility (p = 0.004, ηp2 = 0.213), with stronger performance gains in the females. Conclusions: There was a larger effectiveness from the 6-week volleyball-specific training in the stroboscopic group compared to the non-stroboscopic group. The stroboscopic training resulted in significant improvements on most measures (three of five) of visual and visuomotor function with more marked enhancement in visuomotor than in sensory processing. Also, the stroboscopic intervention improved reactive agility, with more pronounced performance gains for short-term compared to the long-term changes. Gender differences in response to the stroboscopic training are inconclusive, therefore our findings do not offer a clear consensus.

Effectiveness of Brainball program on physical fitness of primary school pupils in Vietnam. A longitudinal study.

Objective: The present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the Brainballs on the physical fitness of 2nd-grade students at a primary school in Vietnam during and eight months after the experiment. Methods: The study included 55 pupils (23 boys and 32 girls) aged seven years. The study design was a pedagogical experiment with a parallel-group technique, including experimental and control groups. The examination was carried out in 2019/2020 in three terms pre- (September 2019), post- (January 2020), and follow-up (September 2020). Physical fitness was tested with the use of the International Physical Fitness Test. The Brainball program, conducted twice a week for 35 minutes, combined physical education (PE) with subject-related content, utilizing 100 balls with painted letters, numbers, and signs. Results: Results show that the fitness level was not increased significantly after 20 weeks of the intervention program, neither in experimental nor control groups. However, it significantly improved eight months later at the follow-up examination. The analysis of covariance indicated that pupils from the experimental group improved significantly on most physical fitness as compared to the control group, specifically on the following tests: 50-meter running (p = 0.0044), toe touch (p = 0.0137), standing long jump (p = 0.0076), 4 × 10 m sprint (p = 0.0333), hand strength (p = 0.0233). Conclusions: These results have shown long-term positive effects of the use of "Brainball" educational balls in physical education classes on the physical fitness development of students, especially in the qualities of speed, strength, and flexibility.

Physical activity and sedentary behaviors in Polish children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: Participating in physical activity (PA) is essential for children's proper development. Promoting physical activity from early school years is considered a highly important prevention task for good health. The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of PA and sedentary behavior of children and adolescents aged 6-17 years attending primary and junior high schools in Wroclaw, Lower Silesia, Poland. The study assessed the frequency of various forms of PA and sedentary behavior in children and adolescents. The age differences in PA and sedentary behavior in the cohort studied was also analyzed. DESIGN: Survey study to assess children's and adolescents' physical activity and sedentary behavior were based on a parent-reported questionnaire. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 2913 children and adolescents aged 6-17 years (average age, 11.38 years) from Wroclaw, Poland, who participated in a pro-health campaign "Let's Get the Kids Moving." This project promotes a healthy lifestyle among primary and middle school students. RESULTS: The frequency of physical activity significantly decreased as children grew older (p < 0.0001). As many as 18.6% of adolescents 13-17 years old undertook the recommended level of physical activity less than once a week. Time spent in front of the television or computer by pupils in group 3 was longer than in younger children (p < 0.0001). Nearly 19% of adolescents (13-17 years old) spent 5 h or more daily in a sitting position in front of the television or computer on weekends. CONCLUSIONS: Polish children and adolescents do not spend the recommended level of time on physical activity and spend excessive time in front of the television and other electronic devices. The level of physical activity decreases as the number of hours spent in a sitting position increases with increasing age. Actions should be taken to avoid the long-term consequences of these behaviors.

Do players competing in the UEFA Champions League maintain running performance until the end of the match? Positional analysis between halves and 5-minute intervals.

BACKGROUND: This investigation aimed to analyze differences in running performances amongst playing positions between the first and second halves of soccer matches and at 5-minute intervals during matches. METHODS: Data were collected from 179 soccer players during 20 UEFA Champions League (UCL) 2020/2021 group stage matches. Data were examined using the InStat Fitness semi-automatic video system. Eight variables were selected to quantify players' running performance (RP). Players were categorized based on positional groups: central defenders (CD), fullbacks (FB), central midfielders (CM), wide midfielders (WM), and forwards (FW). Univariate differences in RP were analyzed using ANOVA and the t-test for dependent samples and multivariate differences were identified using canonical discriminant analysis. RESULTS: The main findings were that all positions achieved significantly higher average speeds and walking distances in the first half of the match than in the second half. Furthermore, analysis of positions showed that CM covered more distance than CD in all 5-minute intervals. In addition, WM performed more high-intensity running than CD in all 5-minute intervals and FW performed more high-intensity running than all other playing positions. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from the present study should help coaches design training exercises that are specific to parts of a match. Moreover, the findings can help provide better understanding of match demands and individualization of training. Analysis of 5-minute intervals may also help coaches understand the stages of a match where player substitutions will be most effective.

Responses of soccer players performing repeated maximal efforts in simulated conditions of the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022: A holistic approach.

This study aimed to assess the capacity for repeated maximal effort (RME) of soccer players in the thermo-natural conditions (NC) and in simulated conditions for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar (QSC). Twenty-four semi-professional soccer players participated in the study. The exercise test consisted of ten 6-second maximal efforts on a cycloergometer. A 90-second passive rest interval was used. The test was performed in a Weiss Technik WK-26 climate test chamber in two different conditions: 1) thermo-neutral conditions (NC-20.5°C; 58.7% humidity); and 2) simulated conditions for the 2022 World Cup in Qatar (QSC-28.5 ± 1.92°C; 58.7 ± 8.64% humidity). Power-related, physiological, psychomotor, blood, and electrolyte variables were recorded. Results showed that (1) players achieved higher peak power (max 1607,46 ± 192,70 [W] - 3rd rep), needed less time to peak power (min 0,95 ± 0,27 [s] - 3rd rep), and had a higher fatigue slope (max 218,67 ± 59,64 [W/sek] - 7th rep) in QSC than in NC (in each repetition of study protocol); (2) between the 1st repetition and subsequent repetitions a number of significants in among physiological, blood-related, and electrolyte variables were noted, but their direction was similar in both simulated conditions (e.g. V'O2/kg 37,59 ± 3,96 vs 37,95 ± 3,17 [ml/min/kg] - 3rd rep, LAC 13,16 ± 2,61 vs 14,18 ± 3,13 [mg/dl] - 10th rep or K 4,54 ± 0,29 vs 4,79 ± 0,36 [mmol/l] - 2nd rep when compare QCS and NC respectively); (3) an 8°C of temperature difference between the climatic conditions did not significantly affect the soccer players' physical and physiological responses in RME. The study results can be used in the design of training programs aimed to increase players' physiological adaptations by simulating soccer-specific conditions of play in terms of anaerobic capacity, in particular, repetitive maximal efforts. These findings will be useful during the upcoming 2022 World Cup in Qatar and in locations where high ambient temperatures are customary.

No Motor Costs of Physical Education with Eduball.

Numerous neuroscience studies demonstrate that when motor and cognitive tasks are performed simultaneously, there is dual-task interference. Experiments show that the cost is a temporal deterioration in motor functioning. However, there is no comprehensive research on the developmental costs of dual-task exercises incorporated into physical education (PE). Such an approach is called the interdisciplinary model of PE and is used to stimulate cognitive development. Therefore, there is a knowledge gap regarding the motor costs of methods based on this model, e.g., Eduball. The Eduball method integrates core academic subjects with PE using a set of educational balls printed with letters, numbers, and other signs. To fill this knowledge gap, we replicated the Eduball experiment, focusing on motor development. The half-year intervention occurred in one primary school class. The control group was a peer class participating in traditional PE, not based on dual tasks. We tested students' space-time orientation and graphomotor, locomotor, and object control skills. We found no motor costs of the intervention. Eduball-based PE stimulated motor development as much as traditional PE. Our study suggests that methods based on the interdisciplinary model of PE are safe for motor development. As such, it is worth considering their use in children's education.

Hand Grip Strength Vs. Locomotor Efficiency in Sitting Volleyball Players.

The objective of this paper was to determine the relationship between hand grip strength and movement time (locomotor efficiency in a seated position using the upper and lower extremities) in sitting volleyball players. In addition, a comparison was made between the velocity curves for forward and backward locomotion. Nine male members of the sitting volleyball team participated in the study. Hydraulic and spring manual dynamometers were used to measure hand grip strength. Movement times were registered for distances of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 10-m with the use of the Smart Speed System photocells. Significant relationships between hand grip strength of the left (rs=-0.78) and right (rs=-0.73) hands and the forward movement time over a distance of 1-m were found. Hand grip strength had no significant relationship with either forward movement times at other distances or backward movement times. Results suggest that hand strength is linked to locomotor efficiency of sitting volleyball players. High hand grip strength makes the start easier by pushing away from the ground with the upper limbs.

Physical Performance Indicators and Team Success in the German Soccer League.

The aims of this study were (1) to determine the match running performance required by different teams based on their final ranking position and (2) to analyze the association between match running performance variables and team success at the end of the season. A total of 1,224 match observations from professional soccer teams competing during two consecutive seasons in the German Bundesliga were analyzed. In addition, the final league ranking position and the total of points obtained by each team at the end of the season were registered for the analysis of the association between team success and match running performance. The main findings were that high ranked teams covered the greatest total distance with ball possession, sprinting distance with ball possession, and completed the greatest number of sprinting actions with ball possession and maximal velocity. Moreover, total distance covered with possession of the ball and maximal velocity were the most important variables to predict the total of points obtained at the end of the season. Specifically, the relative contribution of total distance covered with ball possession to the total of points obtained was greater than maximal velocity. Training programs for professional soccer players should be focused on improving the sprint capacity and running with possession of the ball (e.g., transitional tasks and small-sided games). Moreover, this has implications for injury prevention, physical, psychological, and technical-tactical training since today's soccer requires players to engage in repeated high-intensity actions, reach maximum speeds above 9 m/s, and develop technical-tactical coordination when running with the ball.

Assessment of the elementary school students' schoolbag weight in the urban environment in Poland: A cross-sectional study carried out as a part of the 'Lightweight Schoolbag' and 'Let's Get the Kids Moving' projects.

BACKGROUND: Carrying a properly weighted schoolbag is an important factor in preventing the occurrence of muscular skeletal disorder in early school age children. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this cross- sectional observational study was to examine the schoolbag weight and to determine the percentage of children were carrying overloaded schoolbag. METHODS: The study group included pupils from five primary public schools in Wroclaw, Poland. Anthropometrical measurements such body weight (BW) and height were conducted on 650 children (51.1% of boys). Children's age, gender, Cole's Index was juxtaposed with schoolbag weight. The mean age of the examined students was 8.7±0.8 years (range 7 to 10 years). RESULTS: The mean schoolbags weight was 3.7±0.92 kg, which represented 13.0±3.8% of pupils' BW. The percentage of pupils carry the schoolbags weighing more than 10% of their BW was 77.9%. More than a quarter of Polish children carry school backpack above 15% of their BW. The majority (96.8%) had schoolbags which may be carried on both shoulders. A significant negative correlation was observed between relative schoolbag weight and Cole's Index (rho = -0.44, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The problem of overloaded schoolbags among elementary school children was frequent. Pupils ought to be educated in the proper packing of their school backpacks. Additionally, parents and teachers should pay attention regarding the contents carried by children in their respective schoolbags.

Physical Education with Eduball Stimulates Non-Native Language Learning in Primary School Students.

Although the neuronal mechanisms of action and cognition are related, the division of intellectual and physical lessons is standard in schools. This is surprising, because numerous studies show that integrating physical education (PE) with teaching content stimulates critical skills. For example, several experiments indicate that Eduball-based PE (i.e., lessons in a sports hall during which students play team mini-games with educational balls with printed letters, numbers, and other signs) develops mathematical and language competencies. At the same time, the Eduball method does not slow down learners' physical development. However, we have little knowledge about the effects of such techniques on non-native language learning. Consequently, the absence of incorporating core academic subjects into PE in dual-language schools or during foreign language education is exceptionally high. Here, we replicated the Eduball experiment, but with the goal of testing this method for non-native language learning. Thus, the intervention occurred in a dual-language primary school and we evaluated second language (L2) learning. As before, we used the technique of parallel groups (experimental and control); in both groups, there were three 45-min PE classes per week. In the experimental class, two of them were held using Eduball. After a half-year experiment, children from the experimental group (one second-grade, N = 14) improved their non-native language skills significantly more than their peers from the control group (one second-grade, N = 12). These findings demonstrate that Eduball-type intervention stimulates non-native language learning in children. Hence, our report suggests that specific body training forms can support L2 learning.

Strength Abilities and Serve Reception Efficiency of Youth Female Volleyball Players.

Success in volleyball largely depends on motor abilities, particularly on maximum strength, power, jumping, and speed performance. However, a small number of studies assess the relationship between motor abilities and the effectiveness of volleyball technical skills. Therefore, the aim of the study was to assess the impact of the strength of the upper and lower limbs on the efficiency of serve reception during a 2 vs. 2 game, as well as to evaluate the results of motor measurements in the context of determining the usefulness of current testing procedures. The study involved a carefully chosen group of 12 girls aged 12-13 years (body height: 176.5 ± 4.2 cm, body mass: 58.6 ± 5.1 kg, and training experience: 43 ± 15 months) selected for the Lower Silesian Regional Volleyball Team. The following tests were conducted: handgrip strength with a hand dynamometer, bent-arm hang, 2 kg medicine ball throw, shoulder joint internal rotators (IR) peak torque, standing long jump, spike jump, and countermovement jump. The measurements of the shoulder joint IR peak torque were performed under isometric (at 10°, 35°, and 65° rotation angles) and isokinetic (at 60°/s, 180°/s, and 300°/s) conditions. The efficiency of serve reception was evaluated during a 2 vs. 2 games by using Data Volley statistical software. The strongest positive relationships were observed between the serve reception efficiency and the peak torque and power of the shoulder joint IR, the medicine ball throw distance, and handgrip strength. Jumping variables showed no associations with efficient of serve reception. Consequently, we suggest adding protocols to volleyball training that include strength exercises aimed at developing the IR muscle group. The isokinetic upper limb test should be introduced as a valid tool in selection process. Coaches who do not have access to modern research equipment should use the medicine ball throw test to evaluate strength abilities as an alternative assessment of the serve reception efficiency.

Analysis of team success based on match technical and running performance in a professional soccer league.

BACKGROUND: The aims of this study were to (1) determine the match technical and running performance required by different teams based on their final ranking position in a professional soccer league; and (2) analyze the correlation between teams' success at the end of the season and variables related to match technical and running performance. METHODS: These performance data were collected during a total of 612 matches in the German Bundesliga. The final ranking position and the total of points obtained by each team at the end of the season were registered for the analysis of the correlation between team success and performance. RESULTS: The main findings were that there was a significant interaction (p < 0.05) between the ranking position, and both match technical and running performance. However, goals scored, saved shots on goal by the goalkeeper, assists, allowed shots on goal, goals conceded, ball possession ratio and successful passes from open play were the variables with the strongest correlation (r > 0.7; p ≤ 0.01) with the total of points obtained at the end of the season. CONCLUSIONS: Strength and conditioning coaches may consider these results to develop adequate training strategies, which may not only optimize performance but also reduce the injury risk.

The high-intensity interval training introduced in physical education lessons decrease systole in high blood pressure adolescents.

Increased resting blood pressure (BP) is a risk factor for many health complications. The prevalence of elevated BP is growing among adolescents. There is a need to investigate effective ways of decreasing excessive blood pressure in this age group. The study aim was to determine the effect of 10-weeks High-Intensive Interval Training (HIIT)-Tabata protocol-introduced in physical education (PE) lessons on resting blood pressure in adolescents. The sample included 52 boys aged 16.23 ± 0.33 years body height176.74 ± 6.07 (m), body weight 65.42 ± 12.51 (kg), BMI 20.89 ± 3.53 (kg/m2) and 89 girls aged 16.12 ± 0.42 years, body height 164.38 ± 6.54 (m), body weight 56.71 ± 10.23 (kg), BMI 20.93 ± 3.08 (kg/m2) from secondary school. Based on resting BP, the fractions of boys and girls with normal BP and high BP were identified and divided into experimental (EG) and control (CG) groups. EG completed a 10-weeks HIIT program (three cycles of Tabata protocol) implemented in one PE lesson during a week. The duration of the effort was 14 min. The intensity was at 75-80% of maximal heart rate. Changes in systolic and diastolic BP after the experiment were examined. The results indicated the improvement in SBP in EG with high BP compared to the rest of the groups (average reduction of 12.77 mmHg; p < 0.0001). The EG normotensive had a statistically significant higher reduction of SBP comparing CG normotensive (average decrease of 1.81 mmHG; p = 0.0089). HIIT effectively decreases BP in adolescents. Implementing HIIT in PE lessons in secondary school is recommended to improve BP parameters.

Everyone Can Implement Eduball in Physical Education to Develop Cognitive and Motor Skills in Primary School Students.

Studies suggest that incorporating core academic subjects into physical education (PE) stimulates the development of both motor and cognitive skills in primary school students. For example, several experiments show that children's participation in Eduball, i.e., a method that uses educational balls with printed letters, numbers, and other signs, improves their physical fitness while simultaneously developing their mathematical and language skills. However, the question of who should conduct such classes to make them most effective (regular classroom teachers, physical education teachers, or maybe both in cooperation?) remains unanswered. Here, we replicated a previous Eduball experiment, but now, instead of one experimental group, there were three. In the first, Eduball-classes were conducted by the classroom teacher, in the second, by the physical education teacher, and in the third, collaboratively. After one year intervention, all experimental groups significantly improved both their cognitive (mathematical, reading, and writing) and gross motor (locomotor and object control) skills, and these effects were larger than in the control group participating in traditional PE. Importantly, there were no differences in progression between the Eduball-groups. Thus, our study demonstrates that methods linking PE with cognitive tasks can be effectively used by both PE specialists and general classroom teachers.

Reactive Agility in Competitive Young Volleyball Players: A Gender Comparison of Perceptual-Cognitive and Motor Determinants.

Limited evidence is available providing specific details about the perceptual-cognitive and motor factors that contribute to reactive agility (RA) and variations between genders in young athletes. The aim of the study was to investigate perceptual-cognitive and motor determinants of RA in competitive youth volleyball players. A total of 135 volleyball players (61 males, 74 females) aged 16-18 years were included in this study. The independent variables were as follows: explosive strength, maximal frequency of movements, simple and complex reaction time, selective attention, sensory sensitivity, and saccadic dynamics. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that explosive strength (ß = - 0.494; p < 0.001) and complex reaction time (ß = 0.225; p = 0.054) accounted for 23% of the variance in RA performance in male players. The best exploratory model for RA contributed 34.5% of the variance in RA for female players with significant determinants of explosive strength (ß = -0.387; p < 0.001), sensory sensitivity (ß = -0.326; p = 0.001) and selective attention (ß = 0.229; p = 0.020). Male athletes obtained better results in RA, in all motor tests (effect size of 0.88 to 2.58) and in five variables of perceptual-cognitive skills (effect size of 0.35 to 0.98). Motor and perceptual-cognitive components significantly contributed to performance in RA in competitive youth volleyball players. Gender differentiates between players' RA performance, motor properties and saccadic dynamics to a large extent, while the remaining analyzed perceptual-cognitive components vary between female and male players to a small and moderate extent.