Special Education Representation Trends Vary by Language Status: Evidence of Underrepresentation in Tennessee.

Using state-level data, we report unadjusted and adjusted odds ratio of special education (SPED) trends in Tennessee from 2009 to 2019 for students in Grades 3 to 8 by three language groups: native English speakers (NES), English-proficient bilinguals (EPB), and Current English learners (Current EL). We report trends across all SPED disability categories and across five prevalent disability categories (specific learning disability, specific language impairment, intellectual disability, other health impairments, and autism). The cross-sectional analytic sample included 812,783 students from 28 districts that met the SPED risk ratio threshold set by the state. Results revealed that, compared with NES students, both EPB and Current EL students were generally less likely to receive SPED services, suggesting evidence of language status disparities in SPED representation. Furthermore, findings varied depending on whether adjustments were made to generate odds ratios, especially for higher-incidence disabilities (specific learning disability, specific language impairment, and intellectual disability). Finally, the most severe evidence of underrepresentation was in lower-incidence disabilities (other health impairments and autism). Our results underscore the need for further examination into low rates of SPED identification among learners whose first language is not English (EPB and Current EL). We discuss the contextualized research, practice, and policy implications of our findings.

A Marshall Plan for the 21st century: Addressing climate change in the Asia-Pacific through diplomacy, development, and defense.

The inevitable climate challenges facing the Asia-Pacific territory require a massive whole-of--government approach comparable to the Marshall Plan of 1948. While many political leaders have called for such a plan, no policy currently exists for this region or purpose. With nearly eight trillion dollars in trade revenue passing through crucially strategic straits daily, seven of the 10 largest militaries in the world (five of which are nuclear capable) operating throughout this territory, and a forecast for nearly exponential population growth, the geopolitical provenance of the United States (US), ties inextricably to this portion of the globe. A document analysis assessing existing diplomatic, developmental, and defensive policies concludes that a modern-day Marshall Plan for the 21st century Asia-Pacific is achievable by realigning lines of effort within current frameworks. As long as the US continues to deny climate change, other nation-state actors within the area will rise to fill the void. The US must commit to the funding, development, and proliferation of clean and sustainable energy solutions, which evolve past current fossil-fuel reliant technologies and, most importantly, be open-source in description and shared with other large polluters throughout the world. Finally, the nations of the Asian-Pacific realm should contemplate a theater-specific treaty organization. As climate change threatens to destabilize the region, a unified force intent on providing stabilization efforts, preventing internal conflict and escalation, and enforcing international law deserves consideration and deliberation.

Statistical methods and reporting practices in the study of dyslexia.

This report presents findings from a review of the journals Dyslexia and Annals of Dyslexia over a 10-year period from 2005 to 2014. Three hundred articles were reviewed to examine statistical methodology and reporting practices. Articles were coded according to their reported covariates, effect sizes, and statistical methods. In addition, trends were examined in relation to the 2008 release of the What Works Clearinghouse Procedures and Standards Handbook from the Institute of Education Sciences in order to evaluate any potential impact of recommended practices. We found an increase in prevalence of specific statistical methods as well as increases in reporting of effect sizes following publication of the handbook. The reporting of effect sizes statistically significantly increased following publication of the manual (55% prepublication vs. 72% post-publication). The use of analysis of variance increased post-publication, whereas articles using no statistical methods or descriptives only decreased. Approximately one third of articles included covariates in their analysis; inclusion of covariates was consistent from prepublication to post-publication. Findings indicate that over the past 10 years, articles are becoming increasingly rigorous in methodology and reporting practices.

New small dictyostelids from seasonal rainforests of Central America.

Ten small dictyostelids isolated from samples collected from the surface humus layer of seasonal rainforests of Belize and Guatemala were studied morphologically, and nine were found to represent distinct species, all with an average height of < 2 mm (0.5-3.5 mm). Although their fruiting bodies (sorocarps) closely resemble one another, the nine species differ in their patterns of aggregation, stream pattern, branching development, formation of microcysts, spore shape, presence or absence of spore granules and their distribution, as well as in the shapes and behavior of their sorogens and myxamoebae. These stable morphological features were sufficient to recognize nine new species of small dictyostelids, one with two varieties. SSU rDNA sequences were generated for all these new isolates, and phylogenetic analyses of these sequences show these new isolates belong to Dictyostelid group 3. As a result of this and other recent studies, the concept of what constitutes a species in the dictyostelids has become much more restricted and well defined, in as much as some of the morphological and behavioral patterns now being observed were overlooked in the past. The extent, flow direction and conformation of streaming within the group varies from simple aggregation mounds with no streams to short streams, to somewhat longer streams and finally to well developed streams. Each of these is characterized by a particular set of distinguishing features.

Dictyostelid cellular slime molds associated with grasslands of the central and western United States.

Dictyostelid cellular slime molds (dictyostelids) associated with grassland ecosystems of the central and western United States were investigated at nine sites that included examples of the three major ecological types of grasslands (tall grass, mixed grass and short grass) generally recognized for the region. Samples of soil/humus collected from each site were examined with the Cavender method of isolating dictyostelids. For each of those six sites with well developed gallery forests present, an additional set of forest soil/humus samples was collected. A more intensive sampling effort was carried out at one site (Konza LTER) to assess the possible effects of burning and grazing on dictyostelid diversity and density. Twelve species of dictyostelids were recovered from grassland sites, whereas gallery forest sites yielded only nine species. Four cosmopolitan species (Dictyostelium giganteum, D. mucoroides, D. sphaerocephalum and Polysphondylium pallidum) were represented by the greatest densities of clones, with D. sphaerocephalum particularly common. The general pattern across all sites was that both species richness and density of dictyostelids decreased with decreasing precipitation. Samples collected from ungrazed grassland plots yielded higher numbers of both species and clones as compared to grazed plots, and the general pattern was for both values to increase as the interval between fires increased. For numbers of clones this correlation was statistically significant.