On the Morphology of Nanostructured TiO2 for Energy Applications: The Shape of the Ubiquitous Nanomaterial.

Nanostructured titania is one of the most commonly encountered constituents of nanotechnology devices for use in energy-related applications, due to its intrinsic functional properties as a semiconductor and to other favorable characteristics such as ease of production, low toxicity and chemical stability, among others. Notwithstanding this diffusion, the quest for improved understanding of the physical and chemical mechanisms governing the material properties and thus its performance in devices is still active, as testified by the large number of dedicated papers that continue to be published. In this framework, we consider and analyze here the effects of the material morphology and structure in determining the energy transport phenomena as cross-cutting properties in some of the most important nanophase titania applications in the energy field, namely photovoltaic conversion, hydrogen generation by photoelectrochemical water splitting and thermal management by nanofluids. For these applications, charge transport, light transport (or propagation) and thermal transport are limiting factors for the attainable performances, whose dependence on the material structural properties is reviewed here on its own. This work aims to fill the gap existing among the many studies dealing with the separate applications in the hope of stimulating novel cross-fertilization approaches in this research field.

Photoionization mass spectrometry of ω-phenylalkylamines: Role of radical cation-π interaction.

Linear ω-phenylalkylamines of increasing alkyl chain length have been investigated employing synchrotron radiation in the photon energy range from 7 to 15 eV. These molecules have received considerable interest because they bear the skeleton of biologically relevant compounds including neurotransmitters and because of the possible interaction between the amino moiety and the phenyl ring. Recently, the contribution of this interaction has been assayed in both neutral and protonated species, pointing to a role of the polymethylene chain length. In this work, the ionization energy (IE) values of benzylamine (BA), 2-phenylethylamine (2-PEA), 3-phenylpropylamine (3-PPA), and 4-phenylbutylamine (4-PBA) were investigated in order to ascertain the impact of the different alkyl chain lengths and to verify an amino radical cation-π interaction. The IEs obtained experimentally, 8.54, 8.37, 8.29, and 8.31 eV for BA, 2-PEA, 3-PPA and 4-PBA, respectively, show a decreasing trend that is discussed employing calculations at the CBS-QB3 level. Moreover, the appearance energy values for major fragments produced by the photofragmentation process are reported.

Chlorine Para-Substitution of 1-Phenylethanol: Resonant Photoionization Spectroscopy and Quantum Chemical Calculations of Hydrated and Diastereomeric Complexes.

The conformational landscape of (S)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)ethanol, its monohydrated complex, and its diastereomeric adducts with R- and S-butan-2-ol, have been investigated by resonant two-photon ionization (R2PI) spectroscopy coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Theoretical calculations at the D-B3LYP/6-31++G** level of theory have been performed to assist in the interpretation of the spectra and in the assignment of the structures. The R2PI spectra and the predicted structures have been compared with those obtained on the analogous non-halogenated and fluorinated systems, i.e., (R)-1-phenylethanol and (S)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)ethanol, respectively. It appears that the presence of chlorine atom in the para position of the aromatic ring does not influence the overall geometry of bare molecule and its complexes with respect to the non-halogenated analogous systems. Anyway, it affects the electron density in the π system, and in turn the strength of OH···π and CH···π interactions. A spectral chiral discrimination is evident from the R2PI spectra of the diastereomeric adducts of (S)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)ethanol with the two enantiomers of butan-2-ol.

The effect of fluorine substitution on chiral recognition: interplay of CH···π, OH···π and CH···F interactions in gas-phase complexes of 1-aryl-1-ethanol with butan-2-ol.

The molecular diastereomeric complexes between R-1-phenyl-1-ethanol, S-1-(4-fluorophenyl)ethanol and S-1-(2-fluorophenyl)ethanol and R and S-butan-2-ol, isolated under molecular beam conditions in the gas phase, have been investigated by mass-selective resonant two-photon ionization (R2PI) and infrared depleted R2PI (IR-R2PI). The comparison of the three systems allowed us to highlight the significance of specific intermolecular interactions in the chiral discrimination process. The interpretation of the results is based on theoretical predictions mainly at the D-B3LYP/6-31++G** level of theory. The homo and heterochiral complexes are endowed with fine differences in intermolecular interactions, namely strong OH···O, and weaker CH···π, OH···π, CH···F as well as repulsive interactions. The presence of a fluorine atom in the para position of the aromatic ring does not influence the overall geometry of the complex whilst it affects the electron density in the π system and the strength of CH···π and OH···π interactions. The role and the importance of CH···F intermolecular interactions are evident in the complexes with fluorine substitution in the ortho position. While the ortho hetero complex is structurally analogous to the hetero para and non-fluorinated structures, butan-2-ol in the ortho homo adduct adopts a different conformation in order to establish a CH···F intermolecular interaction.

Conformational sensitivity in photoelectron circular dichroism of 3-methylcyclopentanone.

A study of (R)-3-methylcyclopentanone [(R)-3-MCP] by photoelectron spectroscopy and photoelectron circular dichroism (PECD) is presented. The synchrotron radiation gas-phase photoelectron spectra of (R)-3-MCP were measured and are discussed on the basis of different theoretical methodologies. The experimental dichroism of (R)-3-MCP for selected deconvoluted valence states and for the carbonyl carbon 1s core state are reported and reproduced well by calculated dispersions generated by considering the contributions of two different conformers. The theoretical dichroic parameters are calculated by employing a multicentre basis set of B-spline functions and a Kohn-Sham Hamiltonian. Temperature-dependent PECD studies of the HOMO state and the carbonyl carbon 1s core level allowed the separation of the contributions of each conformer by photoelectron dichroism. This new approach clearly shows how the PECD methodology is sensitive to conformational and structural changes of unoriented (R)-3-MCP in the gas phase, opening up new perspectives in the characterisation of chiral molecular systems.

Probing the competition among different coordination motifs in metal-ciprofloxacin complexes through IRMPD spectroscopy and DFT calculations.

The vibrational spectra of ciprofloxacin complexes with monovalent (Li(+), Na(+), K(+), Ag(+)) and polyvalent (Mg(2+), Al(3+)) metal ions are recorded in the range 1000-1900 cm(-1) by means of infrared multiple-photon dissociation (IRMPD) spectroscopy. The IRMPD spectra are analyzed and interpreted in the light of density functional theory (DFT)-based quantum chemical calculations in order to identify the possible structures present under our experimental conditions. For each metal-ciprofloxacin complex, four isomers are predicted, considering different chelation patterns. A good agreement is found between the measured IRMPD spectrum and the calculated absorption spectrum of the most stable isomer for each complex. Metal ion size and charge are found to drive the competition among the different coordination motifs: small size and high charge density metal ions prefer to coordinate the quinolone between the two carbonyl oxygen atoms, whereas large-size metal ions prefer the carboxylate group as a coordination site. In the latter case, an intramolecular hydrogen bond compensates the weaker interaction established by these cations. The role of the metal cation on the stabilization of ionic and nonionic structures of ciprofloxacin is also investigated. It is found that large-size metal ions preferentially stabilize charge separated motifs and that the increase of metal ion charge has a stabilizing effect on the zwitterionic form of ciprofloxacin.

Chirality effects on the IRMPD spectra of basket resorcinarene/nucleoside complexes.

The IRMPD spectra of the ESI-formed proton-bound complexes of the R,R,R,R- and S,S,S,S-enantiomers of a bis(diamido)-bridged basket resorcin[4]arene (R and S) with cytosine (1), cytidine (2), and cytarabine (3) were measured in the region 2800-3600 cm(-1). Comparison of the IRMPD spectra with the corresponding ONIOM (B3LYP/6-31(d):UFF)-calculated absorption frequencies allowed the assessment of the vibrational modes that are responsible for the observed spectroscopic features. All of the complexes investigated, apart from [R⋅H⋅3](+), showed similar IRMPD spectra, which points to similar structural and conformational landscapes. Their IRMPD spectra agree with the formation of several isomeric structures in the ESI source, wherein the N(3)-protonated guest establishes noncovalent interactions with the host amidocarbonyl groups that are either oriented inside the host cavity or outside it between one of the bridged side-chains and the upper aromatic nucleus. The IRMPD spectrum of the [R⋅H⋅3](+) complex was clearly different from the others. This difference is attributed to the effect of intramolecular hydrogen-bonding interactions between the C(2')-OH group and the aglycone oxygen atom of the nucleosidic guest upon repulsive interactions between the same oxygen atom and the aromatic rings of the host.

Chiral recognition between 1-(4-fluorophenyl)ethanol and 2-butanol: higher binding energy of homochiral complexes in the gas phase.

Diastereomeric adducts between (S)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-ethanol and R and S 2-butanol, formed by supersonic expansion, have been investigated by means of a combination of mass selected resonant two-photon ionization-spectroscopy and infrared depletion spectroscopy. Chiral recognition is evidenced by the specific spectroscopic signatures of the S(1)← S(0) electronic transition as well as different frequencies and intensities of the OH stretch vibrational mode in the ground state. D-DFT calculations have been performed to assist in the analysis of the spectra and the determination of the structures. The homochiral and heterochiral complexes show slight structural differences, in particular in the interaction of the alkyl groups of 2-butanol with the aromatic ring. The experimental results show that the homochiral [FE(S)·B(S)] complex is more stable than the heterochiral [FE(S)·B(R)] diastereomer in both the ground and excited states. The binding energy difference has been evaluated to be greater than 0.60 kcal mol(-1).

Conformational landscape of supersonically expanded 1-(fluorophenyl)ethanols and their monohydrated clusters.

The effects of the presence of the ring fluorine atom on the conformational landscape of supersonically expanded isomeric 1-(fluorophenyl)ethanols and their monohydrated clusters are investigated by resonant two-photon ionization (R2PI) spectroscopy, coupled with time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry. In contrast to the very simple spectrum of 1-phenylethanol, the lack of structural symmetry of the aromatic rings of isomeric 1-(fluorophenyl)ethanols generates more complicated spectra, characterized by several low-frequency progressions of bands. Their interpretation is based on the strict correspondence with theoretical predictions at the D-B3LYP/6-31G** level of theory. Monohydration of the 1-(fluorophenyl)ethanol isomers favours exclusive formation of the corresponding conformers, characterized by the O-H...O(w)-H...pi intracomplex interaction and whose excitation spectrum exhibits features attributed to the C(1)-C(alpha) torsion plus intermolecular water torsion.

Molecular and supramolecular chirality: R2PI spectroscopy as a tool for the gas-phase recognition of chiral systems of biological interest.

In life sciences, diastereomeric chiral molecule/chiral receptor complexes are held together by a different combination of intermolecular forces and are therefore endowed with different stability and reactivity. Determination of these forces, which are normally affected in the condensed phase by solvent and supramolecular interactions, can be accomplished through the generation of diastereomeric complexes in the isolated state and their spectroscopic investigation. This review presents a detailed discussion of the mass resolved Resonant Two Photon Ionization (R2PI-TOF) technique in supersonic beams and introduces an overview of various other technologies currently available for the spectroscopic study of gas phase chiral molecules and supramolecular systems. It reports case studies primarily from our recent work using R2PI-TOF methodology for chiral recognition in clusters containing molecules of biological interest. The measurement of absorption spectra, ionization and fragmentation thresholds of diastereomeric clusters by this technique allow the determination of the nature of the intrinsic interactions, which control their formation and which affect their stability and reactivity.

Monosolvation of R-1-phenyl-2,2,2-trifluoroethanol with amines: configurational effects on the excitation, ionization, and fragmentation of diastereomeric complexes.

Wavelength and mass selected resonant two-photon ionization spectra of molecular clusters between R-1-phenyl-2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (FER) and methylamine (M) or the enantiomers of 2-aminobutane (AR and AS) were recorded after supersonic molecular beam expansion and analyzed with the aid of ab initio molecular orbital calculations. The experimental results agree with theoretical calculations pointing to the predominance of the two most stable conformers of monosolvated FER whose CF3 group establishes intense NH...F interactions with the selected amines so as to orient them away from the aromatic ring. This reduces the enantioselectivity of FER toward the 2-aminobutane enantiomers as compared to that exhibited by the R-1-phenylethanol (ER) analogue, where obviously NH...F interactions are absent.

Identification of isomers of nitrotoluene via free electron attachment.

Free electron attachment to the three different isomers of mononitrotoluene molecules in the gas phase is studied using a crossed electron-molecule beams technique. In contrast to previous studies for a large number of negative ions, the presently measured relative cross section curves are recorded with an electron energy resolution of better than 100 meV. For several product anions including the nitro anion NO(2)-, remarkable differences for the three isomers are observed. In almost all fragment anion efficiency curves, the 2-nitrotoluene exhibits pronounced differences from the two other isomers. In contrast, 3- and 4-nitrotoluene disagree only slightly in a few fragment anions from each other.

Dissymmetry effects on the laser spectroscopy of supersonically expanded rare gas/chiral arene heteroclusters.

The R2PI-TOF spectra of supersonically expanded rare gas/chiral arene heteroclusters have been rationalized in terms of the distortion of the pi-electron density reflecting the different dipole and quadrupole momenta induced in the rare gas atoms by interaction with the opposite pi-faces of the chiral arene itself.

Photo-ionization spectroscopy and mass spectrometry of some molecular and supramolecular asymmetric systems in the isolated state.

Asymmetric molecular and supramolecular systems are characterized by: i. the circular dicroism in the angular distribution of valence photoelectrons emitted from randomly oriented chiral molecules by their interaction with circularly polarized VUV light; ii. the different stability and reactivity of diastereomeric aggregates. Both these aspects may have some relationship with the "chiral enrichment mechanism" of chirogenesis, based on the preferential destruction of one enantiomer of a racemate by interaction with a chiral agent, whether a massive species or a circularly polarized photon. The most recent spectroscopic and mass spectrometric studies on this topic are reported in the present mini-review.

Excitation, ionization, and fragmentation of chiral molecules in asymmetric microenvironments: a mass-resolved R2PI spectroscopic study.

One- and two-color, mass selected R2PI spectra of the S(1) <-- S(0) transitions in the bare (R)-(+)-1-phenyl-1-propanol and its complexes with bidentate solvent molecules, like the (R)-(-)- and (S)-(+)-3-hydroxytetrahydrofuran enantiomers, have been recorded after a supersonic molecular beam expansion. The one-color R2PI excitation spectra of the diastereomeric complexes are characterized by three main peaks, one red-shifted and the other two blue-shifted relative to the band origin of the most stable anti conformer of the bare chromophore. The opposite direction of these spectral shifts is ascribed to the occurrence of three different hydrogen bonded isomeric structures for each individual complex, while their different magnitude depends on the configuration of the bidentate solvent molecule as well as its specific hydrogen bond interaction center, whether the ethereal oxygen atom or the hydroxyl group. The same factors play a major role in determining the magnitude of the phenomenological activation barriers for the loss of an ethyl radical from the ionized diastereomeric complexes.

Chiral recognition by mass-resolved laser spectroscopy.

Chiral recognition is a fundamental phenomenon in life sciences, based on the enantioselective complexation of a chiral molecule with a chiral selector. The diastereomeric aggregates, formed by complexation, are held together by a different combination of intermolecular forces and are therefore endowed with different stability and reactivity. Determination of these forces, which are normally affected in the condensed phase by solvent and supramolecular interactions, requires the generation of the diastereomeric complexes in the isolated state and their spectroscopic investigation. This review deals with chiral recognition in the gas phase through the application of laser-resolved mass spectrometric techniques (R2PI-TOF and RET-MS). The measurement of the fragmentation thresholds of diastereomeric clusters by these techniques allows the determination of the nature of the intrinsic interactions, which control their formation and affect their stability and reactivity.