Lifelong exercise practice and immunosenescence: Master athletes cytokine response to acute exercise.

The study aimed to analyze the effects of aging and lifelong training on the main pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and the impact of acute exercise on the expression of these cytokines. Thirty-nine participants were allocated into 3 groups: young (31.8 ±â€¯3.00 yrs.), middle-aged (54.2 ±â€¯5.9 yrs.) and master athletes (53.1 ±â€¯8.8 yrs.) and performed a maximal incremental test on a cycle ergometer. Blood samples were obtained before (Pre), 10 min post-exercise (Post) and 1 h post-exercise (Post 1 h). Mean VO2max was similar for master athletes and youngers and higher compared to the middle-aged group. Resting values of the IL-1ra, IL-1ß, IL-4, and IL-8 were higher in master athletes compared to the young and middle-aged groups (P < 0.01), while the highest values of IL-10 and IL-17 were observed for the youngers (29.49 ±â€¯18.00 pg/mL and 66.24 ±â€¯23.23 pg/mL, respectively) with the middle-aged group showing the lowest values (2.13 ±â€¯1.40 pg/mL). Acute exercise effects (Post) were observed for IL-1ß in the master athletes group, IL-6 in the young group and IL-4 for both groups (P < 0.05). No Post effects were observed for the middle-age group for all cytokines. The TNF-α/IL-10 ratio was higher in all moments for the middle-aged (P < 0.05). In conclusion, lifelong training helps to maintain the balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, together with IL-10 levels close to those found in young adults.

Immune-endocrine responses and physical performance of master athletes during the sports season.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of a training season (approximately 7 months) on physiological and salivary immune-endocrine markers in master athletes. Nine male master athletes were evaluated at the beginning of the season (M1) and a week after the main official competition at the end of the sports season (M2). The controlled variables included Maximal oxygen consumption, anthropometric, physiological, and salivary immune-endocrine markers. Master athletes presented a reduced percentage of fat mass and increased lean body mass at the end of the season. VO2max values were similar at M1 and M2, while the maximal heart rate and lactate were lower at M2. No differences were observed in Immunoglobulin A and cortisol levels between moments, whereas testosterone levels and the testosterone/cortisol ratio were significantly lower at the end of the season. The results suggest that maintaining regular training throughout life has positive effects on body composition and improves physiological fitness. However, care should be taken to avoid fatigue as indicated by lower testosterone levels at the end of the season.

Effects of lifelong training on senescence and mobilization of T lymphocytes in response to acute exercise.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Ageing has profound impact on the immune system, mainly on T-cells. However, it has been suggested that chronic exercise may delay immunosenescence. Master athletes represent an interesting sub-demographic group to test this theory since they maintain a high training frequency and load throughout life. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of lifelong training on the senescence and mobilization of T lymphocytes in response to acute exercise. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Nineteen athletes who regularly participated in training and competitions for more than 20 years throughout their lives and a control group of 10 healthy individuals participated in this study. All subjects performed a progressive test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Blood samples were obtained before (Pre), 10 min after the test (Post) and 1 h after the test (1h). Phenotypic study of peripheral blood T-cells was performed by flow cytometry. Genes of interest expression was done on T-cells purified by cell sorting. RESULTS: Master athletes had a lower percentage of senescent naïve, central memory and effector memory CD8+ T-cells and senescent naïve and effector memory CD4+ T-cells. Age had a positive effect on SLEC CD8+ T-cells and a negative effect on naïve CD8+ T-cells. VO2max positively correlated with the proportion of naïve CD4+ T-cells and negatively correlated with the percentage of total lymphocytes. No differences were founded for CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells and their subsets between master athletes and the control group at all times of measurement. No differences were observed in the CD45RA expressing effector memory cells (EMRA) for the various study conditions. The mRNA expression of the CCR7 gene for naïve CD8+ T-cells and the Fas-L gene for effector-terminal CD8+ T-cells was not different between masters and controls and did not change in response to the maximal protocol test. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, maintaining high levels of aerobic fitness during the natural course of aging may help prevent the accumulation of senescent T-cells.

Acute Hematological and Inflammatory Responses to High-intensity Exercise Tests: Impact of Duration and Mode of Exercise.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the hematological and inflammatory responses to 4 maximal high-intensity protocols, considering energy expenditure in each test. 9 healthy volunteers performed 4 high-intensity exercise tests of short [Wingate (WANT); Repeated-sprints (RSA)] and long durations [Continuous VO2 test (VCONT); intermittent VO2 test (VINT)] in a cycle-ergometer, until exhaustion. Hematological parameters and IL-6, IL-10 and creatine kinase (CK) levels were determined before (PRE), POST, 30 min, 1, 2, 12 and 24 h after the end of the protocols. Additionally, energy expenditure was determined. Leucocytes, erythrocytes and lymphocytes increased at POST and returned to PRE values at 30 min for all protocols. Lymphocytes had a second decreased at 2 h and granulocytes increased at 2 h when compared to PRE. Both variables returned to PRE values between 12-24 h into recovery. The magnitude of response for IL-6 was greater in VINT and for IL-10 in VCONT. There was no association of energy expenditure within each exercise protocol with the pattern of IL-6, IL-10 and CK responses to the exercise protocols. The present finding support that similar responses after continuous or intermittent acute protocols are observed when exercises are performed to volitional failure, regardless of the duration and mode of exercise.

Lifelong training improves anti-inflammatory environment and maintains the number of regulatory T cells in masters athletes.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to quantify and characterize peripheral blood regulatory T cells (Tregs), as well as the IL-10 plasma concentration, in Masters athletes at rest and after an acute exhaustive exercise test. METHODS: Eighteen Masters athletes (self-reported training: 24.6 ± 1.83 years; 10.27 ± 0.24 months and 5.45 ± 0.42 h/week per each month trained) and an age-matched control group of ten subjects (that never took part in regular physical training) volunteered for this study. All subjects performed an incremental test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Blood samples were obtained before (Pre), 10 min into recovery (Post), and 1 h after the test (1 h). RESULTS: Absolute numbers of Tregs were similar in both groups at rest. Acute exercise induced a significant increase in absolute numbers of Tregs at Post (0.049 ± 0.021 to 0.056 ± 0.024 × 109/L, P = 0.029 for Masters; 0.048 ± 0.017 to 0.058 ± 0.020 × 109/L, P = 0.037 for control) in both groups. Treg mRNA expression for FoxP3, IL-10, and TGF-ß in sorted Tregs was similar throughout the trials in both groups. Masters athletes showed a higher percentage of subjects expressing the FoxP3 (100% for Masters vs. 78% for Controls, P = 0.038) and TGF-ß (89% for Masters vs. 56% for Controls, P = 0.002) after exercise and a higher plasma IL-10 concentration (15.390 ± 7.032 for Masters vs. 2.411 ± 1.117 for control P = 0.001, ES = 2.57) at all timepoints. KLRG1 expression in Tregs was unchanged. CONCLUSION: Our findings showed that Masters athletes have elevated anti-inflammatory markers and maintain the number of Tregs, and may be an adaptive response to lifelong training.

High-Dose Probiotic Supplementation Containing Lactobacillus casei for 7 Days Does Not Enhance Salivary Antimicrobial Protein Responses to Exertional Heat Stress Compared With Placebo.

The study aimed to determine whether high-dose probiotic supplementation containing Lactobacillus casei (L. casei) for 7 consecutive days enhances salivary antimicrobial protein (S-AMP) responses to exertional-heat stress (EHS). Eight endurance-trained male volunteers (age 26 ± 6 years, nude body mass 70.2 ± 8.8 kg, height 1.75 ± 0.05 m, VO2max 59 ± 5 ml·kg-1·min-1 [M ± SD]) completed a blinded randomized and counterbalanced crossover design. Oral supplementation of the probiotic beverage (PRO; L. casei . 1011 colony-forming units·day-1) or placebo (PLA) was consumed for 7 consecutive days before 2 hr running exercise at 60% VO2max in hot ambient conditions (34.0° C and 32% RH). Body mass and unstimulated saliva and venous blood samples were collected at baseline (7 days before EHS), pre-EHS, post-EHS (1 hr, 2 hr, and 4 hr), and at 24 hr. Saliva samples were analyzed for salivary (S) IgA, α-amylase, lysozyme, and cortisol. Plasma samples were analyzed for plasma osmolality. Body mass and plasma osmolality did not differ between trials. Saliva flow rate remained relatively constant throughout the experimental design in PRO (overall M ± SD = 601 ± 284 µl/min) and PLA (557 ± 296 µl/min). PRO did not induce significant changes in resting S-AMP responses compared with PLA (p > .05). Increases in S-IgA, S-α-amylase, and S-cortisol responses, but not S-lysozyme responses, were observed after EHS (p < .05). No main effects of trial or Time x Trial interaction were observed for S-AMP and S-cortisol responses. Supplementation of a probiotic beverage containing L. casei for 7 days before EHS does not provide any further oral-respiratory mucosal immune protection, with respect to S-AMP, over PLA.

Circulatory endotoxin concentration and cytokine profile in response to exertional-heat stress during a multi-stage ultra-marathon competition.

Exertional-heat stress has the potential to disturb intestinal integrity, leading to enhanced permeability of enteric pathogenic micro-organisms and associated clinical manifestations. The study aimed to determine the circulatory endotoxin concentration and cytokine profile of ultra-endurance runners (UER, n=19) and a control group (CON, n=12) during a five stage 230km ultra-marathon (mean ± SD: 27h38min ± 3h55min) conducted in hot and dry environmental conditions (30ºC to 40ºC and 31% to 40% relative humidity). Body mass and tympanic temperature were measured, and venous blood samples were taken before (pre-stage) and immediately after (post-stage) each stage of the ultra-marathon for the analysis of gram-negative bacterial endotoxin, C-reactive protein, cytokine profile (IL-6, IL-1ß, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-10, and IL- 1ra), and plasma osmolality. Gastrointestinal symptoms and perceptive thermal tolerance rating were also monitored throughout competition. Mean exercise-induced body mass loss over the five stages ranged 1.0% to 2.5%. Pre- and poststage plasma osmolality in UER ranged277 to 282mOsmol/kg and 286 to 297 mOsmol/kg, respectively. Pre-stage concentrations of endotoxin (peak: 21% at Stage 5), C-reactive protein (889% at Stage 3), IL-6 (152% at Stage 2), IL-1ß (95% at Stage 5), TNF-α (168% at Stage 5), IFN-γ (102% at Stage 5),IL-10 (1271% at Stage 3), and IL-1ra (106% at Stage 5) increased as the ultra-marathon progressed in UER; while no changes in CON were observed (except for IL-1ß, 71% at Stage 5). Pre- to post-stage increases were observed for endotoxin (peak: 22% at Stage 3), C-reactive protein (25% at Stage 1), IL-6 (238% at Stage 1), IL-1ß (64% at Stage 1), TNF-α (101% at Stage 1), IFN-γ (39% at Stage 1), IL-10 (1100% at Stage 1), and IL-1ra(207% at Stage 1) concentrations in UER. Multi-stage ultra-marathon competition in the heat resulted in a modest circulatory endotoxaemia accompanied by a pronounced pro-inflammatory cytokinaemia by post-Stage 1, both of which were sustained throughout competition at rest (pre-stage) and after stage completion. Compensatory anti-inflammatory responses and other external factors (i.e., training status, cooling strategies, heat acclimatization, nutrition and hydration) may have contributed towards limiting the extent of pro-inflammatory responses in the current scenario.

Salivary antimicrobial protein responses during multistage ultramarathon competition conducted in hot environmental conditions.

Prolonged strenuous exercise is commonly reported to depress oral-respiratory immune status and increase the incidence of upper respiratory symptoms. This novel investigation aimed to determine the salivary antimicrobial responses and hydration status of ultraendurance runners (n = 23) during a 230-km multistage ultramarathon conducted in hot ambient conditions (32-40 °C). Body mass was measured and unstimulated saliva and venous blood samples were taken before and after each stage of the ultramarathon. Ad libitum fluid intake was permitted throughout each race day. Upper respiratory symptoms were monitored during and until 4 weeks after race completion. Samples were analyzed for salivary immunoglobulin A (IgA), lysozyme, α-amylase, and cortisol, as well as for plasma and saliva osmolality. Mean exercise-induced body mass loss over the 5 stages ranged from 1.3% to 2.4%. Overall mean pre- and post-stage plasma osmolality measurements in the ultraendurance runners were 279 ± 14 mOsmol·kg(-1) and 293 ± 15 mOsmol·kg(-1), respectively. Decreases in saliva flow rate (overall change 22%) and post-stage increases in saliva osmolality (36%) were observed in the ultraendurance runners during the ultramarathon. Reduced salivary IgA (32%) (p < 0.001 vs. pre-stage salivary IgA), enhanced salivary α-amylase (187%) (p < 0.001 vs. pre-stage salivary α-amylase), and no change in salivary lysozyme secretion rates were observed in the ultraendurance runners throughout the ultramarathon. Only 1 ultraendurance runner reported upper respiratory symptoms during and 1 month after competition. Observed depressions in salivary IgA secretion rates were offset by favourable increases in salivary α-amylase and unchanged lysozyme responses in the majority of runners during the competition. Ensuring euhydration throughout a multistage ultramarathon competition in the heat may play a role in protecting the upper respiratory tract.

Haematological changes in elite kayakers during a training season.

This study monitored haematological markers in response to training load in elite kayakers during a training season. The sample comprised eight elite kayakers aged 22 ± 4.2 years with a 77.2 ± 6.7 kg body mass and a 177.5 ± 5.6 cm stature. The initial [Formula: see text]O(2max) was 61.2 ± 5.5 mL·kg(-1)·min(-1). The control group consisted of six healthy males, aged 18.6 ± 1.1 years, with an 81.3 ± 13.8 kg body mass and a 171.9 ± 4.5 cm stature. Blood samples were collected at the beginning of the training season after an off-training period of six weeks (t(0)), at the 11th week after the application of high training volumes (t(1)), at the 26th week after an intense training cycle (t(2)), and at the 31st week at the end of a tapering phase (t(3)). Differences between time points were detected using ANOVA and the Bonferroni post hoc test. Significant changes were found after the intense training cycle (t(2)), lymphocytes decreased while haemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, mean corposcular haemoglobin, mean concentration of corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, platelets distribution width, and red blood cell distribution width values increased when compared with baseline values. At t(3), a reduction in monocyte numbers and an increase in mean platelet volume compared with baseline values were seen. By reducing the volume and intensity of training, many variables returned to values close to those at baseline. Although many athletes had accumulated responses over time due to training, they still suffered transient changes that appear to be influenced by training load. Haemorheology monitoring may help detect health risks, especially during times of intensified training.

Cytokine production by monocytes, neutrophils, and dendritic cells is hampered by long-term intensive training in elite swimmers.

Elite level athletes seem to be prone to illness especially during heavy training phases. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of long term intensive training on the functional features of innate immune cells from high competitive level swimmers, particularly the production of inflammatory mediators and the possible relationship with upper respiratory symptoms (URS) occurrence. A group of 18 swimmers and 11 healthy non athletes was studied. Peripheral blood samples were collected from athletes after 36 h of resting recovery from exercise at four times during the training season and at three times from non athletes. Samples were incubated in the presence or absence of LPS and IFN-γ and the frequency of cytokine-producing cells and the amount produced per cell were evaluated by flow cytometry. In addition, plasma cortisol levels were measured and URS recorded through daily logs. The athletes, but not the controls, showed a decrease in the number of monocytes, neutrophils, and dendritic cell (DC) subsets and in the amount of IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, and MIP-1ß produced after stimulation, over the training season. Differences were most noticeable between the first and second blood collections (initial increase in training volume). Athlete's cortisol plasma levels partially correlated with training intensity and could help explain the reduced in vitro cell response to stimulation. Our results support the idea that long-term intensive training may affect the function of innate immune cells, reducing their capacity to respond to acute challenges, possibly contributing to an elevated risk of infection.

Effect of 6 Weeks of n-3 fatty-acid supplementation on oxidative stress in Judo athletes.

The aim of this investigation was to assess the effects of 6 wk of eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) supplementation on resting and exercise-induced lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status in judoists. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive a placebo or a capsule of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs; 600 mg EPA and 400 mg DHA). Blood samples were collected in preexercise and postexercise conditions (judo-training session), both before and after the supplementation period. The following parameters were analyzed: α-tocopherol, retinol, lag phase , maximum rate of oxidation (Rmax) during the propagating chain reaction, maximum amount of conjugated dienes (CDmax) accumulated after the propagation phase, nitric oxide (NO) and malondyaldehide (MDA) concentrations, salivary glutathione peroxidase activity, and the lipid profile. Dietary data were collected using a 7-day dietary record. A significant interaction effect between supplementation and time (p < .01) on triglycerides was noted, with values significantly lower in the n-3 long-chain-PUFA (LCPUFA) group after supplementation than in the placebo group. Significant interaction effects between supplementation and time on resting MDA concentrations and Rmax were found (p = .03 and p = .04, respectively), with elevated values in the n-3 LCPUFA group after supplementation and no change in the placebo group's levels. The authors observed a significantly greater NO and oxidative-stress increase with exercise (MDA, Rmax, CDmax, and NO) in the n-3 LCPUFA group than with placebo. No main or interaction effects were found for retinol and α-tocopherol. These results indicate that supplementation with n-3 LCPUFAs significantly increased oxidative stress at rest and after a judo-training session.