The Influence of Racial Socialization, Mentor Support, and Emotion Regulation on the Psychological Well-Being of African American Boys.

Although it is well-documented that school-based racial discrimination can have adverse effects on African American adolescents, the understanding of how socio-emotional factors can act as safeguards is still limited. This study explores whether emotion regulation, mentor support, and parent racial socialization help African American boys cope with school-based racial discrimination. Factors such as emotion regulation are internal assets, while mentor support and parent racial socialization are external resources. Four hundred and eighty-seven African American boys aged 12 to 18 (M = 14.33; SD = 1.62) participated. School-based racial discrimination correlated negatively with psychological well-being. Only emotion regulation and parental racial socialization were related to positive psychological well-being. However, mentor support buffered against the negative impacts of school-based racial discrimination on psychological well-being. These results underscore the significance of assets and resources in bolstering African American boys' resilience against school-based racial discrimination, with implications for interventions and future research.

Fostering inclusion in EEG measures of pediatric brain activity.

The past two decades have seen a rapid increase in neuroscientific evidence being used to characterize how contextual, structural, and societal factors shape cognition and school readiness. Measures of functional brain activity are increasingly viewed as markers of child development and biomarkers that could be employed to track the impact of interventions. While electroencephalography (EEG) provides a promising tool to understand educational inequities, traditional EEG data acquisition is commonly limited in some racial and ethnic groups due to hair types and styles. This ultimately constitutes unintentional systemic racism by disproportionately excluding participants from certain racial and ethnic groups from participation and representation in neuroscience research. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of how cultural considerations surrounding hair density, texture, and styling consistently skew samples to be less representative by disproportionately excluding Black and Latinx participants. We also provide recommendations and materials to promote best practices.

Directionality explored: Black Adolescents' awareness of systemic racism and race-based experiences.

Increases in conversations about race and racial discrimination experiences during adolescence make this a critical developmental period to investigate adolescents' awareness of racism. We examined bidirectional associations between race-based experiences and awareness of systemic racism-operationalized as understanding systemic causes of racial disparities in education. Adolescents who self-identified as African American/Black were surveyed in Grade 6 (n = 317; Mage = 11.12; 48% girls) and Grade 8 (n = 247; Mage = 13.15; 56% girls). Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that racial barrier messages, but not racial discrimination experiences, in Grade 6 positively predicted awareness of systemic racism in Grade 8. Adolescents' awareness of systemic racism in Grade 6 did not predict racial socialization or racial discrimination experiences in Grade 8.

Primping, performing, and policing: Social media use and self-sexualization among U.S. White, Black, and Asian-American adolescent girls.

Objectification theorists argue that routine sexual objectification, experienced interpersonally and via the media, encourages women and adolescent girls to value their external appearance and sexiness above other bodily experiences and competencies. Commonly, tests of this theory have linked exposure to sexualizing media content (i.e., TV, music videos, social media) to self-objectification and subsequently to consequences such as disordered eating among predominantly White samples. Do these analyses extend to U.S. girls of color and to broader well-being consequences? Using structural equation modeling, we tested theorized connections among 884 adolescent girls aged 13-18, including 391 White girls, 248 Black girls, and 245 Asian American girls. Participants completed surveys assessing their use of several social media platforms, social media engagement, self-sexualization, mental health symptoms, self-esteem, and body shame. We also examined age, racial identity, and racial composition of peer group as moderators. The model worked as expected for the full sample, with social media use and engagement predicting greater self-sexualization, which in turn was associated with diminished well-being. However, the model fit was worse for the White girls than for girls of color, and some constructs operated differently. Implications for future research with girls and possible media interventions are discussed.

Standing on the shoulders of a giant: The legacy of Robert M. Sellers.

Robert M. Sellers, PhD, most known for his influential and highly cited Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity (MMRI), is one of the most prolific and foundational Black scholars in psychology. From racial identity theory development and measurement to conceptual and methodological innovations in studying the lived experiences of Black people, Sellers' scholarship centers on the lives of Black communities. Sellers' mentorship and contributions to the professional development of scholars and professionals of color have supported and catalyzed new intergenerational knowledge building by these scholars, ensuring a perpetuating and far-reaching legacy in psychology. In this article, we: (a) celebrate Sellers' enduring contribution to the racial identity literature and its profound impact on psychology as a discipline as well as numerous subfields of psychology, (b) outline his contributions to the racial socialization literature, (c) describe methodological innovations in racial identity and racial socialization research advanced through his scholarship, and (d) summarize his contributions in professional development and mentorship and his leadership roles. Sellers' scholarly contributions and mentorship have transformed the discipline of psychology and the social sciences broadly speaking, making him one of the most influential psychologists in the modern era. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Race differences in Black and white adolescents' academic gender stereotypes across middle and late adolescence.

Objectives: We examined race differences in adolescents' beliefs about boys' and girls' English, math, and science abilities, testing the hypothesis that Black adolescents would rate girls' abilities more favorably than boys' across all domains. In contrast, we expected that White adolescents would report traditional stereotypes favoring boys in math and science and favoring girls in English, and that developmental change would reflect increasing endorsement of traditional stereotypes for both Black and White adolescents. Methods: 654 Black and White adolescents (Mage = 16.3; SD = 0.67) completed surveys rating girls' and boys' competence in each academic domain in Grade 10 and in Grade 12. Results: Across Grade 10 and Grade 12, Black and White adolescents of both genders showed strong endorsement of stereotypes favoring girls in verbal domains. Traditional stereotypes favoring boys in math were endorsed by White adolescents but not Black adolescents and increased across time. Black youth (with scores averaged across grades) and 10th graders (with scores averaged across race) reported that girls were more competent than boys in science. In contrast, girls and boys were viewed as equally competent in science by White adolescents (with scores averaged across time) and by 12th graders (with scores averaged across race). Conclusions: These findings show that Black and White youth differ in their endorsement of stereotypes about gender differences in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) abilities. The results extend prior research with children and early adolescents showing that traditional STEM gender stereotypes become more pronounced in later adolescence and that verbal gender stereotypes are robust. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Youth anti-racism action: Contributions of youth perceptions of school racial messages and critical consciousness.

The current study examined whether youth perceptions of school racial messages that acknowledged the reality of racism (critical consciousness [CC] messages) or denied racism (color-blind messages) predicted youth anti-racism action through interpersonal and communal/political means. We further tested whether youths' critical reflection of perceived inequality and anger toward social injustice-psychological aspects of CC development-mediated relations between school messages and youth actions. These questions were explored using structural equation modeling with 372 racially/ethnically diverse adolescents (Mage = 17.00; standard deviation = 1.29; female = 51.0%). Results indicated that youth perceptions of CC messages predicted their involvement in both interpersonal and communal/political anti-racism action. Youths' anger toward social injustice mediated links between school racial messages and anti-racism action, albeit in unique ways. These findings underscore the power of schools in prompting youth anti-racism action. Implications of the importance of partnerships between schools and youth community organizing groups to stimulate youth anti-racism action were discussed.

Beyond Objectification: Understanding the Correlates and Consequences of Sexualization for Black and White Adolescent Girls.

Although objectification theory posits negative consequences of self-objectification for adolescent girls, few studies have tested how objectification and sexualization contribute to mental health for youth of color. Accordingly, the current study explores the relations among body surveillance, enjoyment of sexualization, and mental health for a sample of 473 Black and White adolescent girls (Mage = 15.21, SD = 1.43). As expected, body surveillance and enjoyment of sexualization were associated with various forms of diminished well-being. Race moderated two of these links, with Black girls who reported higher levels of body surveillance also reporting higher levels of depression and hostility compared with their White peers. Future work should examine the implications of enjoyment of sexualization for youth of color.

Longitudinal relations between skin tone and self-esteem in African American girls.

We examined developmental changes in self-esteem from late childhood to late adolescence in African American girls (N = 124), comparing skin tone groups. Girls completed a measure of self-esteem when they were in Grades 5, 7, 10, and 12, and in Grade 12 their skin tone was rated on a 3-point scale (1 = Light, 2 = Medium, 3 = Dark). Girls with lighter skin reported higher self-esteem than dark and medium-toned girls in Grades 5 and 7, and their self-esteem remained high across the seven years of the study. The self-esteem of dark- and medium-skinned girls increased in high school such that at Grade 12, medium-skinned girls had higher self-esteem than dark-skinned girls, who did not differ from light-skinned girls. The results are discussed in terms of theory-building on the topic of colorism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The development of academic and nonacademic race stereotypes in African American adolescents.

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine developmental change and gender differences in the Black-White race stereotype endorsement of African American adolescents. In Grades 7, 10, and 12, African American students (N = 563; 313 girls) reported their perceptions of the competence of Blacks and Whites in academic, music, and sports domains. Multilevel growth modeling (MLM) was used to assess change from Grade 7 to Grade 12. Separate models tested academic (English, math, science) and nonacademic (music and sports) stereotypes. Across time points, students reported higher competence for Whites than Blacks in English, math, and science and higher competence for Blacks in music and sports. Academic stereotype endorsement increased between Grades 7 and 10, and students' endorsement of music and sports stereotypes decreased over time. Girls endorsed race stereotypes favoring Whites in math and science more strongly than boys. Boys reported stronger sports stereotypes than girls. Results highlight the value of intersectional approaches to studying stereotypes, as factors linked to gender identity may play a role in Black youths' race stereotype endorsement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Black Adolescents' Critical Reflection Development: Parents' Racial Socialization and Attributions About Race Achievement Gaps.

This research explored the development of Black adolescents' (N = 454) critical reflection, conceived as individual (i.e., blaming Black people) and structural (i.e., blaming systemic racism) attributions for race achievement gaps. In this longitudinal study, adolescents and their parents reported their individual and structural attributions for race achievement gaps and parents' racial socialization. Adolescents' structural attributions increased from Grade 10 to Grade 12. Average levels of individual attributions did not change. Adolescents' reports of parental racial socialization and parents' structural attributions when youth were in Grade 10 predicted increases in adolescents' structural attributions. Findings are applied to future research and efforts to increase adolescent critical reflection.

Racial discrimination experiences and African American youth adjustment: The role of parenting profiles based on racial socialization and involved-vigilant parenting.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to test whether parenting profiles based on racial socialization and involved-vigilant parenting would compensate for or moderate associations between racial discrimination experiences and academic outcomes and psychological well-being among African American adolescents. METHOD: Participants were 1,363 African American adolescents (Mage = 14.19; 52.3% female) from 3 Midwestern suburban school districts. Latent profile analysis was used to examine whether there were distinct combinations of parenting. The relationships among racial discrimination experiences, parenting profiles, and adjustment were examined using structural equation modeling (SEM). RESULTS: Three distinct parenting profiles were found: moderate positive (n = 767; moderately high involved-vigilant parenting and racial barrier, racial pride, behavioral, and egalitarian messages, and low negative messages), unengaged (n = 351; low racial socialization messages and moderately low involved-vigilant parenting), and high negative parenting (n = 242; high negative messages, moderate other racial socialization messages, and moderately low involved-vigilant parenting). Racial discrimination experiences were negatively associated with youth adjustment. Moderate positive parenting was related to the best academic outcomes and unengaged parenting was associated with more positive academic outcomes than high negative parenting. Moderate positive parenting was associated with better psychological well-being than unengaged or high negative parenting although the benefits were greater for adolescents with fewer racial discrimination experiences. CONCLUSIONS: Distinct patterns of racial socialization messages and involved-vigilant parenting contribute to differences in African American youth adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record

Bidirectional influence between African American mothers' and children's racial centrality from elementary through high school.

For many African Americans, racial identity is an important aspect of their individual identity. We explored developmental change and stability of individual differences in the racial centrality of African American youths and their mothers as well as the relation between maternal and child racial centrality across time. African American youths (N = 380) and mothers completed surveys when youths were in grades 5, 7, 10, and 12. Mean levels of youths' racial centrality did not increase or decrease across the 7 years of the study. The stability of individual differences in youths' racial centrality increased across time, reaching adult levels by high school. Cross-lagged panel analyses showed relations between mothers' and children's racial centrality in middle adolescence but not in early and late adolescence. Results document that the importance of race to the personal identities of African American youths does not show normative developmental change across adolescence, and only minimal change is linked to maternal influence. (PsycINFO Database Record

Framing black boys: parent, teacher, and student narratives of the academic lives of black boys.

The discourse on Black boys tends to suggest that Black boys are in complete peril. We begin with evidence that Black boys are excelling in certain contexts (i.e., in certain states, in certain schools, and in certain courses). We then discuss the ways in which the narratives used by parents, teachers, and Black boys themselves may serve to further reinforce views that Black boys are beyond hope. Research on Black parents suggests that they tend to view their sons as vulnerable and have lower expectations for sons than for daughters. Studies of teachers show that they tend to view Black boys as unteachable, as social problems, and as scary. Research on Black boys shows that they are sometimes complicit in supporting these narratives by engaging in negative or ste reotypical behavior. We also include recent research that includes counter-narratives of Black boys. We end with suggestions for future research.

Self Views of African American Youth are Related to the Gender Stereotypes and Academic Attributions of Their Mothers.

We examined relations among African American mothers' (N = 392) stereotypes about gender differences in mathematics, science, and reading performance, parents' attributions about their children's academic successes and failures, and their seventh and eighth grade children's academic self-views (domain-specific ability attributions and self-concept). Parents' stereotypes about gender differences in abilities were related to their ability attributions for their children's successes and failures within academic domains. Mothers' attributions, in turn, were related to children's attributions, particularly among girls. Mothers' attributions of their children's successes to domain-specific ability were related to the self-concepts of daughters, and failure attributions were related to domain-specific self-concepts of sons. The influences of parents' beliefs on young adolescents' identity beliefs are discussed.

Age and Race Differences in Racial Stereotype Awareness and Endorsement.

Age and race differences in race stereotype awareness and endorsement were examined in 382 Black and White fourth, sixth, and eighth graders. Youth reported their own beliefs and their perceptions of adults' beliefs about racial differences in ability in two domains: academics and sports. Children's own endorsement of race stereotypes was highly correlated with their perceptions of adults' race stereotypes. Blacks reported stronger traditional sports stereotypes than Whites, and fourth- and sixth-grade Blacks reported roughly egalitarian academic stereotypes. At every grade level, Whites reported academic stereotypes that favored Whites, and sixth and eighth grade Whites reported sports stereotypes that favored Blacks. Results support the tenets of status theory and have implications for identity development and achievement motivation in adolescents.

Involved-vigilant parenting and socio-emotional well-being among black youth: the moderating influence of natural mentoring relationships.

Positive relationships with parents and nonparental adults have the potential to bolster Black adolescents' socio-emotional well-being. Though each type of intergenerational relationship has been linked to more positive youth outcomes, few studies have examined the interactive influences of parenting and natural mentoring relationships on the socio-emotional development of Black youth. In the current study, we examined associations between involved-vigilant parenting and the psychological well-being and social skills of Black early adolescents (n = 259; 58 % female; mean age = 13.56, SD = .96) across types of natural mentoring relationships. Using K-means cluster analysis, we identified two types of mentoring relationships (less connected and more connected) based on relationship length, involvement, closeness, and frequency of contact. Youth with more connected mentoring relationships (n = 123) had higher psychological well-being and social skills than youth with no mentor (n = 64) or less connected mentors (n = 72). Youth without a natural mentor and youth with less connected mentors did not differ in their levels of social skills or psychological well-being. Structural equation modeling was conducted to determine if associations between involved-vigilant parenting and youths' psychological well-being and social skills varied among youth with a more connected mentoring relationship in comparison to youth without a mentor or with a less connected mentor, controlling for participants' gender, age, school, and parental education. The positive associations between involved-vigilant parenting and adolescents' psychological well-being and social skills were weaker among adolescents with a more connected mentoring relationship in comparison to their peers without or with a less connected mentoring relationship. These results suggest that youth may be more strongly influenced by involved-vigilant parenting in the absence of a strongly connected natural mentoring relationship.

A longitudinal examination of African American adolescents' attributions about achievement outcomes.

Developmental, gender, and academic domain differences in causal attributions and the influence of attributions on classroom engagement were explored longitudinally in 115 African American adolescents. In Grades 8 and 11, adolescents reported attributions for success and failure in math, English and writing, and science. In Grade 11, English and mathematics teachers rated students' classroom engagement. Boys were more likely than girls to attribute math successes to high ability and to attribute English failures to low ability. Both genders' ability attributions for math became more negative from eighth to eleventh grades. Grade 8 attributions of math failure to lack of ability were negatively related to Grade 11 math classroom engagement. Results illustrate the gendered nature of motivational beliefs among Black youth.

Academic Self-Concept in Black Adolescents: Do Race and Gender Stereotypes Matter?

We examined the relation between race- and gender-group competence ratings and academic self-concept in 252 Black seventh- and eighth-graders. On average, youth reported traditional race stereotypes, whereas gender stereotypes were traditional about verbal abilities and were nontraditional regarding math/science abilities. Among boys, in-group gender and in-group race-based competence ratings (i.e. ratings of boys and Blacks) were related to math/science and verbal self-concepts. However, only gender-based ratings (i.e. ratings of girls' abilities for reading/writing) were related to girls' self-concepts. These findings suggest that the influence of race stereotypes on Black adolescents' academic self-concepts is different for girls than boys. Whereas self-relevant gender groups were associated with both Black girls' and boys' academic self-concept, race-based competence ratings were only relevant for the academic self-views of Black boys.

A Longitudinal Study of Household Change on African American Adolescents.

Few studies have examined the effects of household change on adolescent development. We study household composition change and its effect on development, as measured by both internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors, in a sample of urban African American adolescents. Household change was defined based on the movement in or out of the household of one of the two most important adults adolescents named. We found 25% of adolescents reported changes in their household composition over the four years of high school. Youth who experienced change reported more internalizing symptoms and externalizing behavior than youth who did not experience change. Those reporting important people leaving their household had the greatest negative outcomes.