Defective quality control autophagy in Hyperhomocysteinemia promotes ER stress and consequent neuronal apoptosis through proteotoxicity.

Homocysteine (Hcy), produced physiologically in all cells, is an intermediate metabolite of methionine and cysteine metabolism. Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) resulting from an in-born error of metabolism that leads to accumulation of high levels of Hcy, is associated with vascular damage, neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Using a HHcy model in neuronal cells, primary cortical neurons and transgenic zebrafish, we demonstrate diminished autophagy and Hcy-induced neurotoxicity associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, fragmentation and apoptosis. We find this mitochondrial dysfunction is due to Hcy-induced proteotoxicity leading to ER stress. We show this sustained proteotoxicity originates from the perturbation of upstream autophagic pathways through an aberrant activation of mTOR and that protetoxic stress act as a feedforward cues to aggravate a sustained ER stress that culminate to mitochondrial apoptosis in HHcy model systems. Using chemical chaperones to mitigate sustained ER stress, Hcy-induced proteotoxicity and consequent neurotoxicity were rescued. We also rescue neuronal lethality by activation of autophagy and thereby reducing proteotoxicity and ER stress. Our findings pave the way to devise new strategies for the treatment of neural and cognitive pathologies reported in HHcy, by either activation of upstream autophagy or by suppression of downstream ER stress. Video Abstract.

NSP4 and ORF9b of SARS-CoV-2 Induce Pro-Inflammatory Mitochondrial DNA Release in Inner Membrane-Derived Vesicles.

Circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA) has been found in the plasma of severely ill COVID-19 patients and is now known as a strong predictor of mortality. However, the underlying mechanism of mtDNA release is unexplored. Here, we show a novel mechanism of SARS-CoV-2-mediated pro-inflammatory/pro-apoptotic mtDNA release and a rational therapeutic stem cell-based approach to mitigate these effects. We systematically screened the effects of 29 SARS-CoV-2 proteins on mitochondrial damage and cell death and found that NSP4 and ORF9b caused extensive mitochondrial structural changes, outer membrane macropore formation, and the release of inner membrane vesicles loaded with mtDNA. The macropore-forming ability of NSP4 was mediated through its interaction with BCL2 antagonist/killer (BAK), whereas ORF9b was found to inhibit the anti-apoptotic member of the BCL2 family protein myeloid cell leukemia-1 (MCL1) and induce inner membrane vesicle formation containing mtDNA. Knockdown of BAK and/or overexpression of MCL1 significantly reversed SARS-CoV-2-mediated mitochondrial damage. Therapeutically, we engineered human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with a simultaneous knockdown of BAK and overexpression of MCL1 (MSCshBAK+MCL1) and named these cells IMAT-MSCs (intercellular mitochondrial transfer-assisted therapeutic MSCs). Upon co-culture with SARS-CoV-2-infected or NSP4/ORF9b-transduced airway epithelial cells, IMAT-MSCs displayed functional intercellular mitochondrial transfer (IMT) via tunneling nanotubes (TNTs). The mitochondrial donation by IMAT-MSCs attenuated the pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic mtDNA release from co-cultured epithelial cells. Our findings thus provide a new mechanistic basis for SARS-CoV-2-induced cell death and a novel therapeutic approach to engineering MSCs for the treatment of COVID-19.

Cellular and mitochondrial calcium communication in obstructive lung disorders.

Calcium (Ca2+) signalling is well known to dictate cellular functioning and fate. In recent years, the accumulation of Ca2+ in the mitochondria has emerged as an important factor in Chronic Respiratory Diseases (CRD) such as Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Various reports underline an aberrant increase in the intracellular Ca2+, leading to mitochondrial ROS generation, and further activation of the apoptotic pathway in these diseases. Mitochondria contribute to Ca2+ buffering which in turn regulates mitochondrial metabolism and ATP production. Disruption of this Ca2+ balance leads to impaired cellular processes like apoptosis or necrosis and thus contributes to the pathophysiology of airway diseases. This review highlights the key role of cytoplasmic and mitochondrial Ca2+ signalling in regulating CRD, such as asthma and COPD. A better understanding of the dysregulation of mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis in these diseases could provide cues for the development of advanced therapeutic interventions in these diseases.

Beclin 1 controls pigmentation by changing the nuclear localization of melanogenic factor MITF.

The primary contributor for the determination of skin color is melanin, a pigment that is produced in specialized cells called melanocytes. At cellular level, melanin synthesis occurs through several enzymes like tyrosinase (TYR) and tyrosinase related proteins and the expression of these proteins are regulated transcriptionally by microphthalmia associated transcription factor (MITF). Melanin pigmentation is a complex process finely regulated by different transcription factors, structural proteins and enzymes. In recent times, several autophagic genes have been implicated in the regulation of pigmentation. Though previous report observed a visible loss of coat-color in heterozygous Beclin 1 mice, the role of this protein in pigmentation is yet to study in details. In this present work we intend to study the role of Beclin 1, a central autophagic factor, in pigmentation. Using human melanoma cells and primary melanocytes, we showed that Beclin 1 downregulation significantly decreased the melanin content, tyrosinase activity and the expression of TYR and tyrosinase related protein 1 (TYRP1). These effects were recapitulated in a Beclin 1 knockdown in vivo model of zebrafish. Most importantly, re-expression of Beclin 1 rescued the pigmentation-associated defects both in cellular and in organismal level indicating the specificity. Surprisingly, Beclin 1 knockdown cells did not show significant changes in MITF expression but the nuclear localization of MITF was altered. Together, these data suggest that indeed Beclin 1 is associated with melanogenesis and this effect is more likely exerted through the subcellular distribution rather than the change in expression of MITF.

Role of Tmem163 in zinc-regulated insulin storage of MIN6 cells: Functional exploration of an Indian type 2 diabetes GWAS associated gene.

Genome wide association study for type 2 diabetes discovered TMEM163 as a risk locus. Perturbations in TMEM163 expression was reported to be associated with impaired intracellular zinc homeostasis. Physiological concentration of zinc is instrumental to maintain insulin storage and functionality in pancreatic ß cells. We found abundant TMEM163 expression in human pancreas, both at transcriptional and translational levels. Knockdown of endogenous Tmem163 in MIN6 cells resulted in increased intracellular zinc and total insulin content, coupled with compromised insulin secretion at high glucose stimuli. Furthermore, Tmem163 knockdown led to enhanced cellular glucose uptake. Upon next generation sequencing, one-third of the studied T2D patients were found to have a novel missense variant in TMEM163 gene. Study participants harboring this missense variant displayed a trend of higher glycemic indices. This is the first report on exploring the biological role of TMEM163 in relation to T2D pathophysiology.

Myg1 exonuclease couples the nuclear and mitochondrial translational programs through RNA processing.

Semi-autonomous functioning of mitochondria in eukaryotic cell necessitates coordination with nucleus. Several RNA species fine-tune mitochondrial processes by synchronizing with the nuclear program, however the involved components remain enigmatic. In this study, we identify a widely conserved dually localized protein Myg1, and establish its role as a 3'-5' RNA exonuclease. We employ mouse melanoma cells, and knockout of the Myg1 ortholog in Saccharomyces cerevisiae with complementation using human Myg1 to decipher the conserved role of Myg1 in selective RNA processing. Localization of Myg1 to nucleolus and mitochondrial matrix was studied through imaging and confirmed by sub-cellular fractionation studies. We developed Silexoseqencing, a methodology to map the RNAse trail at single-nucleotide resolution, and identified in situ cleavage by Myg1 on specific transcripts in the two organelles. In nucleolus, Myg1 processes pre-ribosomal RNA involved in ribosome assembly and alters cytoplasmic translation. In mitochondrial matrix, Myg1 processes 3'-termini of the mito-ribosomal and messenger RNAs and controls translation of mitochondrial proteins. We provide a molecular link to the possible involvement of Myg1 in chronic depigmenting disorder vitiligo. Our study identifies a key component involved in regulating spatially segregated organellar RNA processing and establishes the evolutionarily conserved ribonuclease as a coordinator of nucleo-mitochondrial crosstalk.

Identification of novel targets for miR-29a using miRNA proteomics.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short regulatory RNA molecules that interfere with the expression of target mRNA by binding to complementary sequences. Currently, the most common method for identification of targets of miRNAs is computational prediction based on free energy change calculations, target site accessibility and conservation. Such algorithms predict hundreds of targets for each miRNA, necessitating tedious experimentation to identify the few functional targets. Here we explore the utility of miRNA-proteomics as an approach to identifying functional miRNA targets. We used Stable Isotope Labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) based proteomics to detect differences in protein expression induced by the over-expression of miR-34a and miR-29a. Over-expression of miR-29a, a miRNA expressed in the brain and in cells of the blood lineage, resulted in the differential expression of a set of proteins. Gene Ontology based classification showed that a significant sub-set of these targets, including Voltage Dependent Anion Channel 1 and 2 (VDAC1 and VDAC2) and ATP synthetase, were mitochondrial proteins involved in apoptosis. Using reporter assays, we established that miR-29a targets the 3' Untranslated Regions (3' UTR) of VDAC1 and VDAC2. However, due to the limited number of proteins identified using this approach and the inability to differentiate between primary and secondary effects we conclude that miRNA-proteomics is of limited utility as a high-throughput alternative for sensitive and unbiased miRNA target identification. However, this approach was valuable for rapid assessment of the impact of the miRNAs on the cellular proteome and its biological role in apoptosis.

Bid-induced mitochondrial membrane permeabilization waves propagated by local reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling.

Bid-induced mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and cytochrome c release are central to apoptosis. It remains a mystery how tiny amounts of Bid synchronize the function of a large number of discrete organelles, particularly in mitochondria-rich cells. Looking at cell populations, the rate and lag time of the Bid-induced permeabilization are dose-dependent, but even very low doses lead eventually to complete cytochrome c release. By contrast, individual mitochondria display relatively rapid and uniform kinetics, indicating that the dose dependence seen in populations is due to a spreading of individual events in time. We report that Bid-induced permeabilization and cytochrome c release regularly demonstrate a wave-like pattern, propagating through a cell at a constant velocity without dissipation. Such waves do not depend on caspase activation or permeability transition pore opening. However, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavengers suppressed the coordination of cytochrome c release and also inhibited Bid-induced cell death, whereas both superoxide and hydrogen peroxide sensitized mitochondria to Bid-induced permeabilization. Thus, Bid engages a ROS-dependent, local intermitochondrial potentiation mechanism that amplifies the apoptotic signal as a wave.

A short review on creatine-creatine kinase system in relation to cancer and some experimental results on creatine as adjuvant in cancer therapy.

The creatine/creatine kinase (CK) system plays a key role in cellular energy buffering and transport. In vertebrates, CK has four isoforms expressed in a tissue-specific manner. In the process of creatine biosynthesis several other important metabolites are formed. The anticancer effect of creatine had been reported in the past, and recent literature has reported low creatine content in several types of malignant cells. Furthermore, creatine can protect cardiac mitochondria from the deleterious effects of some anticancer compounds. Previous work from our laboratory showed progressive decrease of phosphocreatine, creatine and CK upon transformation of skeletal muscle into sarcoma. It was convincingly demonstrated that prominent expression of creatine-synthesizing enzymes L-arginine: glycine amidinotransferase and N-guanidinoacetate methyltransferase occurs in sarcoma, Ehrlich ascites carcinoma and sarcoma 180 cells; whereas, both these enzymes are virtually undetectable in skeletal muscle. Creatine transporter also remained unaltered in malignant cells. The anticancer effect of methylglyoxal had been known for a long time. The present work shows that this anticancer effect of methylglyoxal is significantly augmented in presence of creatine. On creatine supplementation the effect of methylglyoxal plus ascorbic acid was further augmented and there was no visible sign of tumor. Moreover, creatine and CK, which were very low in sarcoma tissue, were significantly elevated with the concomitant regression of tumor.

MTCH2/MIMP is a major facilitator of tBID recruitment to mitochondria.

The BH3-only BID protein (BH3-interacting domain death agonist) has a critical function in the death-receptor pathway in the liver by triggering mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Here we show that MTCH2/MIMP (mitochondrial carrier homologue 2/Met-induced mitochondrial protein), a novel truncated BID (tBID)-interacting protein, is a surface-exposed outer mitochondrial membrane protein that facilitates the recruitment of tBID to mitochondria. Knockout of MTCH2/MIMP in embryonic stem cells and in mouse embryonic fibroblasts hinders the recruitment of tBID to mitochondria, the activation of Bax/Bak, MOMP, and apoptosis. Moreover, conditional knockout of MTCH2/MIMP in the liver decreases the sensitivity of mice to Fas-induced hepatocellular apoptosis and prevents the recruitment of tBID to liver mitochondria both in vivo and in vitro. In contrast, MTCH2/MIMP deletion had no effect on apoptosis induced by other pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members and no detectable effect on the outer membrane lipid composition. These loss-of-function models indicate that MTCH2/MIMP has a critical function in liver apoptosis by regulating the recruitment of tBID to mitochondria.

VDAC2 is required for truncated BID-induced mitochondrial apoptosis by recruiting BAK to the mitochondria.

Truncated BID (tBID), a proapoptotic BCL2 family protein, induces BAK/BAX-dependent release of cytochrome c and other mitochondrial intermembrane proteins to the cytosol to induce apoptosis. The voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) are the primary gates for solutes across the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM); however, their role in apoptotic OMM permeabilization remains controversial. Here, we report that VDAC2(-/-) (V2(-/-)) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) are virtually insensitive to tBID-induced OMM permeabilization and apoptosis, whereas VDAC1(-/-), VDAC3(-/-) and VDAC1(-/-)/VDAC3(-/-) MEFs respond normally to tBID. V2(-/-) MEFs regain tBID sensitivity after VDAC2 expression. Furthermore, V2(-/-) MEFs are deficient in mitochondrial BAK despite normal tBID-mitochondrial binding and BAX/BAK expression. tBID sensitivity of BAK(-/-) MEFs is also reduced, although not to the same extent as V2(-/-) MEFs, which might result from their strong overexpression of BAX. Indeed, addition of recombinant BAX also sensitized V2(-/-) MEFs to tBID. Thus, VDAC2 acts as a crucial component in mitochondrial apoptosis by allowing the mitochondrial recruitment of BAK, thereby controlling tBID-induced OMM permeabilization and cell death.

Fluorometric methods for detection of mitochondrial membrane permeabilization in apoptosis.

The mitochondrial regulation of cell death involves the release of proapoptotic factors, such as cytochrome c, Smac-DIABLO, AIF, OMI/HtrA2, by disruption of the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) permeability barrier that is controlled by pro- and antiapoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family. One of the mechanisms contributing to the OMM permeabilization is dependent on the interaction of proapoptotic Bcl-2 family proteins and other factors straight with the OMM. Another mechanism is initiated by the permeability transition of the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), leading to an increase in the matrix volume and reorganization of the IMM structure, which in turn, influence the OMM permeability barrier. The OMM also provides surface for the assembly of the apoptosome, where the mitochondria-derived proapoptotic factors induce caspase activation. Fluorescence measurements have been devised for evaluation of the barrier function of both OMM and IMM and of the downstream effectors of the factors released from the mitochondria to the cytosol. Many of these measurements are real-time, quantitative, and can be conveniently performed in a fluorometer cuvette containing suspensions of permeabilized cells or isolated mitochondria. This chapter provides a step-by-step manual for the measurements of the mitochondrial membrane potential, retention of Ca(2+) and cytochrome c, matrix volume, and caspase activation and discusses protocols for discrimination between different mechanisms of the OMM permeabilization.

Bad targets the permeability transition pore independent of Bax or Bak to switch between Ca2+-dependent cell survival and death.

Calcium oscillations exert physiological control on mitochondrial energy metabolism and can also lead to mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and cell death. The outcome of the mitochondrial calcium signaling is altered by stress factors such as ceramide or staurosporine. However, the mechanism of this proapoptotic switch remains unclear. Using genetic, biochemical, pharmacological, and functional approaches, we here show that ceramide and staurosporine target PP2A and protein kinases A and C, respectively, in a mitochondria-associated signaling complex to induce dephosphorylation of the BH3-only protein Bad. Dephosphorylated Bad sensitizes the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (PTP) to Ca2+ through a Bcl-xL-sensitive and VDAC-mediated process. Furthermore, the Bad-induced sensitization of the PTP to Ca2+ does not require Bax or Bak. Thus, phospho-regulatory mechanisms converge on Bad to switch between the survival and apoptotic functions of mitochondrial calcium signaling by activating a mechanism whereby a BH3-only protein bypasses Bax/Bak and engages the PTP.

Calcium, mitochondria and apoptosis studied by fluorescence measurements.

Among the many unsolved problems of calcium signalling, the role of calcium elevations in apoptotic and necrotic cell death has been a focus of research in recent years. Evidence has been presented that calcium oscillations can effectively trigger apoptosis under certain conditions and that dysregulation of calcium signalling is a common cause of cell death. These effects are regularly mediated through calcium signal propagation to the mitochondria and the ensuing mitochondrial membrane permeabilization and release of pro-apoptotic factors from mitochondria to the cytoplasm. The progress in this area depended on the development of (1) fluorescent/luminescent probes, including fluorescent proteins that can be genetically targeted to different intracellular locations and (2) the digital imaging technology, fluorescence-activated cell sorting and fluorescent high throughput approaches, which allowed dynamic measurements of both [Ca2+] in the intracellular compartments of interest and the downstream processes. Fluorescence single cell imaging has been the only possible approach to resolve the cell-to-cell heterogeneity and the complex subcellular spatiotemporal organization of the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial calcium signals and downstream events. We outline here fluorometric and fluorescence imaging protocols that we set up for the study of calcium in the context of apoptosis.

Protective effect of creatine against inhibition by methylglyoxal of mitochondrial respiration of cardiac cells.

Previous publications from our laboratory have shown that methylglyoxal inhibits mitochondrial respiration of malignant and cardiac cells, but it has no effect on mitochondrial respiration of other normal cells [Biswas, Ray, Misra, Dutta and Ray (1997) Biochem. J. 323, 343-348; Ray, Biswas and Ray (1997) Mol. Cell. Biochem. 171, 95-103]. However, this inhibitory effect of methylglyoxal is not significant in cardiac tissue slices. Moreover, post-mitochondrial supernatant (PMS) of cardiac cells could almost completely protect the mitochondrial respiration against the inhibitory effect of methylglyoxal. A systematic search indicated that creatine present in cardiac cells is responsible for this protective effect. Glutathione has also some protective effect. However, creatine phosphate, creatinine, urea, glutathione disulphide and beta-mercaptoethanol have no protective effect. The inhibitory and protective effects of methylglyoxal and creatine respectively on cardiac mitochondrial respiration were studied with various concentrations of both methylglyoxal and creatine. Interestingly, neither creatine nor glutathione have any protective effect on the inhibition by methylglyoxal on the mitochondrial respiration of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells. The creatine and glutathione contents of several PMS, which were tested for the possible protective effect, were measured. The activities of two important enzymes, namely glyoxalase I and creatine kinase, which act upon glutathione plus methylglyoxal and creatine respectively, were also measured in different PMS. Whether mitochondrial creatine kinase had any role in the protective effect of creatine had also been investigated using 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, an inhibitor of creatine kinase. The differential effect of creatine on mitochondria of cardiac and malignant cells has been discussed with reference to the therapeutic potential of methylglyoxal.