Effects of bisphenol A and triclocarban on brain-specific expression of aromatase in early zebrafish embryos.

Estrogen regulates numerous developmental and physiological processes. Most effects are mediated by estrogen receptors (ERs), which function as ligand-regulated transcription factors. Estrogen also regulates the activity of GPR30, a membrane-associated G protein-coupled receptor. Many different types of environmental contaminants can activate ERs; some can bind GPR30 as well. There is growing concern that exposure to some of these compounds, termed xenoestrogens, is interfering with the behavior and reproductive potential of numerous wildlife species, as well as affecting human health. Here, we investigated how two common, environmentally pervasive chemicals affect the in vivo expression of a known estrogen target gene in the brain of developing zebrafish embryos, aromatase AroB, which converts androgens to estrogens. We confirm that, like estrogen, the well-studied xenoestrogen bisphenol A (BPA, a plastics monomer), induces strong brain-specific overexpression of aromatase. Experiments using ER- and GPR30-selective modulators argue that this induction is largely through nuclear ERs. BPA induces dramatic overexpression of AroB RNA in the same subregions of the developing brain as estrogen. The antibacterial triclocarban (TCC) by itself stimulates AroB expression only slightly, but TCC strongly enhances the overexpression of AroB that is induced by exogenous estrogen. Thus, both BPA and TCC have the potential to elevate levels of aromatase and, thereby, levels of endogenous estrogens in the developing brain. In contrast to estrogen, BPA-induced AroB overexpression was suppressed by TCC. These results indicate that exposures to combinations of certain hormonally active pollutants can have outcomes that are not easily predicted from their individual effects.

Quantitative NMR analysis of the protein G B1 domain in Xenopus laevis egg extracts and intact oocytes.

We introduce a eukaryotic cellular system, the Xenopus laevis oocyte, for in-cell NMR analyses of biomolecules at high resolution and delineate the experimental reference conditions for successful implementations of in vivo NMR measurements in this cell type. This approach enables quantitative NMR experiments at defined intracellular concentrations of exogenous proteins, which is exemplified by the description of in-cell NMR properties of the protein G B1 domain (GB1). Additional experiments in Xenopus egg extracts and artificially crowded in vitro solutions suggest that for this biologically inert protein domain, intracellular viscosity and macromolecular crowding dictate its in vivo behavior. These contributions appear particularly pronounced for protein regions with high degrees of internal mobility in the pure state. We also evaluate the experimental limitations of this method and discuss potential applications toward the in situ structural characterization of eukaryotic cellular activities.

Using Xenopus oocyte extracts to study signal transduction.

Xenopus oocytes are naturally arrested at G2/M in prophase I of meiosis. Stimulation with progesterone initiates a nontranscriptional signaling pathway that culminates in the activation of Cdc2/cyclin B and reentry into meiosis. This pathway presents a paradigm for nongenomic signaling by steroid hormones and for the G2/M cell cycle transition. It has been extensively studied using intact oocytes, which are amenable to microinjection and biochemical analyses described elsewhere in this book. However, there are several experimental advantages in using in vitro systems consisting of cytosolic fractions of prophase-arrested oocytes. Because of their homogeneous nature, extracts avoid the difficulties of signaling asynchrony between individual oocytes. They are also amenable to biochemical manipulations such as protein immunodepletions, and proteins and pharmacological agents can be added easily. Despite these features, oocyte extracts have yet to achieve the widespread utility of Xenopus egg extracts, which can proceed through rounds of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) replication and mitosis in vitro. Here, we review the historical development of oocyte extracts and discuss the factors most crucial to success in reproducing the signaling pathway and the G2/M transition in vitro.

Aurora A, mitotic entry, and spindle bipolarity.

The kinase Aurora-A (Aur-A), which is enriched at centrosomes, is required for centrosome maturation and accurate chromosome segregation, and recent work implicates centrosomes as sites where the earliest activation of cyclin B1-cdc2 occurs. Here, we have used Xenopus egg extracts to investigate Aur-A's contribution to cell cycle progression and spindle morphology in the presence or absence of centrosomes. We find that addition of active Aur-A accelerates cdc2 activation and mitotic entry. Depletion of endogenous Aur-A or addition of inactive Aur-A, which lead to monopolar spindles, delays but does not block mitotic entry. These effects on timing and spindle structure do not require the presence of centrosomes or chromosomes. The catalytic domain alone of Aur-A is sufficient to restore spindle bipolarity; additional N-terminal sequences function in mitotic timing.

Aurora B is required for mitotic chromatin-induced phosphorylation of Op18/Stathmin.

Oncoprotein 18/Stathmin (Op18) is a microtubule-destabilizing protein that is inhibited by phosphorylation in response to many types of signals. During mitosis, phosphorylation of Op18 by cdc2 is necessary but not sufficient for Op18 inhibition. The presence of mitotic chromosomes is additionally required and involves phosphorylation of Ser-16 in Xenopus Op18 (and/or Ser-63 in human). Given that Ser-16 is an excellent Aurora A (Aur-A) kinase consensus phosphorylation site and the Aurora kinase inhibitor ZM447439 (ZM) blocks phosphorylation in the activation loop of Aur-A, we asked whether either Aur-A or Aurora B (Aur-B) might regulate Op18. We find that ZM blocks the ability of mitotic chromatin to induce Op18 hyperphosphorylation in Xenopus egg extracts. Depletion of Aur-B, but not Aur-A, blocks hyperphosphorylation of Op18, and chromatin assembled in the absence of Aur-B fails to induce hyperphosphorylation. These results suggest that Aur-B, which concentrates at centromeres of metaphase chromosomes, contributes to localized regulation of Op18 during the process of spindle assembly.

Changes in regulatory phosphorylation of Cdc25C Ser287 and Wee1 Ser549 during normal cell cycle progression and checkpoint arrests.

Entry into mitosis is catalyzed by cdc2 kinase. Previous work identified the cdc2-activating phosphatase cdc25C and the cdc2-inhibitory kinase wee1 as targets of the incomplete replication-induced kinase Chk1. Further work led to the model that checkpoint kinases block mitotic entry by inhibiting cdc25C through phosphorylation on Ser287 and activating wee1 through phosphorylation on Ser549. However, almost all conclusions underlying this idea were drawn from work using recombinant proteins. Here, we report that in the early Xenopus egg cell cycles, phosphorylation of endogenous cdc25C Ser287 is normally high during interphase and shows no obvious increase after checkpoint activation. By contrast, endogenous wee1 Ser549 phosphorylation is low during interphase and increases after activation of either the DNA damage or replication checkpoints; this is accompanied by a slight increase in wee1 kinase activity. Blocking mitotic entry by adding the catalytic subunit of PKA also results in increased wee1 Ser549 phosphorylation and maintenance of cdc25C Ser287 phosphorylation. These results argue that in response to checkpoint activation, endogenous wee1 is indeed a critical responder that functions by repressing the cdc2-cdc25C positive feedback loop. Surprisingly, endogenous wee1 Ser549 phosphorylation is highest during mitosis just after the peak of cdc2 activity. Treatments that block inactivation of cdc2 result in further increases in wee1 Ser549 phosphorylation, suggesting a previously unsuspected role for wee1 in mitosis.

Aurora kinase inhibitor ZM447439 blocks chromosome-induced spindle assembly, the completion of chromosome condensation, and the establishment of the spindle integrity checkpoint in Xenopus egg extracts.

The Aurora family kinases contribute to accurate progression through several mitotic events. ZM447439 ("ZM"), the first Aurora family kinase inhibitor to be developed and characterized, was previously found to interfere with the mitotic spindle integrity checkpoint and chromosome segregation. Here, we have used extracts of Xenopus eggs, which normally proceed through the early embryonic cell cycles in the absence of functional checkpoints, to distinguish between ZM's effects on the basic cell cycle machinery and its effects on checkpoints. ZM clearly had no effect on either the kinetics or amplitude in the oscillations of activity of several key cell cycle regulators. It did, however, have striking effects on chromosome morphology. In the presence of ZM, chromosome condensation began on schedule but then failed to progress properly; instead, the chromosomes underwent premature decondensation during mid-mitosis. ZM strongly interfered with mitotic spindle assembly by inhibiting the formation of microtubules that are nucleated/stabilized by chromatin. By contrast, ZM had little effect on the assembly of microtubules by centrosomes at the spindle poles. Finally, under conditions where the spindle integrity checkpoint was experimentally induced, ZM blocked the establishment, but not the maintenance, of the checkpoint, at a point upstream of the checkpoint protein Mad2. These results show that Aurora kinase activity is required to ensure the maintenance of condensed chromosomes, the generation of chromosome-induced spindle microtubules, and activation of the spindle integrity checkpoint.

Requirements for the destruction of human Aurora-A.

The mitotic kinase Aurora A (Aur-A) is overexpressed in a high proportion of human tumors, often in the absence of gene amplification. In somatic cells, Aur-A protein levels fall following mitosis or upon overexpression of Cdh1, an activator of the ubiquitin ligase APC/C. Thus, mutations that reduce or block the rate of Aur-A destruction might also be expected to contribute to its oncogenic potential. Previous work had defined two short sequences of Xenopus Aur-A that are required for its Cdh1-inducible destruction in extracts of Xenopus eggs, an N-terminal A box and a C-terminal D box, and a serine residue within the A box whose phosphorylation might inhibit destruction. Here, we show that these same sequences are required for the destruction of human Aur-A during mitotic exit and G1 in the somatic cell cycle. Expression of a dominant negative Cdh1 protein leads to accumulation of Aur-A, further indicating that the Cdh1-activated form of the APC/C is responsible for destruction of Aur-A during the somatic cell cycle in vivo. During the course of this work, we found some previously unsuspected problems in commonly used in vitro destruction assays, which can result in misleading results. Potentially confounding factors include: (i) the presence of D-box- and A-box-dependent destruction-promoting activities in the reticulocyte in vitro translation mix that is used to produce radiolabeled substrates for destruction assays; and (ii) the ability of green-fluorescent-protein tags to reduce the destruction rate of Aur-A substantially. These findings have direct relevance for studies of Aur-A destruction itself, and for broader approaches that use in vitro translation products in screens for additional APC/C targets.

Aurora A, meiosis and mitosis.

The Aurora family kinases are pivotal to the successful execution of cell division. Together they ensure the formation of a bipolar mitotic spindle, accurate segregation of chromosomes and the completion of cytokinesis. They are also attractive drug targets, being frequently deregulated in cancer and able to transform cells in vitro. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about the three family members, Aur-A, Aur-B and Aur-C. We then focus on Aur-A, its roles in mitotic progression, and its emerging roles in checkpoint control pathways. Aur-A activity can be controlled at several levels, including phosphorylation, ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis and interaction with both positive regulators, such as TPX2, and negative ones, like the tumor suppressor protein p53. In addition, work in Xenopus oocytes and early embryos has revealed a second role for Aur-A, directing the polyadenylation-dependent translation of specific mRNAs important for cell cycle progression. This function extends to post-mitotic neurons, and perhaps even to cycling somatic cells.

CK2 beta, which inhibits Mos function, binds to a discrete domain in the N-terminus of Mos.

Progesterone stimulates G2-arrested Xenopus oocytes to synthesize Mos, a MAPK kinase kinase required for the coordinated activation of cdc2 and the G2/Meiosis I (MI) transition. Mos leads to activation of MAPK, Rsk, and the inhibition of the cdc2 inhibitor Myt1. Previous work identified CK2 beta as a Mos-interacting protein, and suggested that CK2 beta acts as a negative regulator by setting a threshold above which newly made Mos must accumulate to activate MAPK. However, it had not been demonstrated that CK2 beta directly inhibits Mos. We report here that Mos (52-115) is required for CK2 beta binding and can serve as a portable binding domain. To test whether CK2 beta acts at the level of Mos or on a downstream component, we took advantage of previous work that showed injection of Mos arrests rapidly dividing embryonic cells. We find that coinjection of CK2 beta and Mos into embryonic cells inhibits the ability of Mos to arrest cell division. In contrast, CK2 beta does not inhibit the mitotic arrest induced by injection of active Rsk. These results argue that CK2 beta directly binds and inhibits Mos rather than a downstream component, and support that CK2 beta functions as a molecular buffer that prevents premature MAPK activation and oocyte maturation.

Regulation of the G2/M transition in oocytes of xenopus tropicalis.

The molecular events regulating hormone-induced oocyte activation and meiotic maturation are probably best understood in Xenopus laevis. In X. laevis, progesterone activates the G2-arrested oocyte, induces entry into M phase of meiosis I (MI) and resumption of the meiotic cell cycles, and leads to the formation of a mature, fertilizable egg. Oocytes of Xenopus tropicalis offer several practical advantages over those of X. laevis, including faster and more synchronous meiotic cell cycle progression, less seasonal variability, and the availability of transgenic approaches. Previous work found several similarities in the pathways regulating oocyte maturation in the two species. Here, we report several additional ones that are conserved in X. tropicalis. (1). Injection of Mos mRNA into G2-arrested oocytes activates the MAP kinase cascade and induces the G2/MI transition. (2). Injection of the beta subunit of the kinase CK2 (a negative regulator of Mos and oocyte activation) delays the G2/MI transition. (3). Elevating PKA activity blocks progesterone-induced maturation; repressing PKA activity induces entry into MI in the absence of progesterone. (4). LF (anthrax lethal factor), which cleaves certain MAP kinase kinases, strongly reduces both the rate and extent of entry into MI. In contrast to the one previously reported major difference between oocytes of the two species, we find that injection of egg cytoplasm ("MPF activity") into G2-arrested X. tropicalis oocytes induces entry into meiosis I even when protein synthesis is blocked, just as it does in oocytes of X. laevis. These results indicate that much of what we have learned from studies of X. laevis oocytes holds for those of X. tropicalis, and suggest that X. tropicalis oocytes offer a good experimental system for investigating certain questions that require a rapid, synchronous progression through the G2/meiosis I transition.

A Ran signalling pathway mediated by the mitotic kinase Aurora A in spindle assembly.

The activated form of Ran (Ran-GTP) stimulates spindle assembly in Xenopus laevis egg extracts, presumably by releasing spindle assembly factors, such as TPX2 (target protein for Xenopus kinesin-like protein 2) and NuMA (nuclear-mitotic apparatus protein) from the inhibitory binding of importin-alpha and -beta. We report here that Ran-GTP stimulates the interaction between TPX2 and the Xenopus Aurora A kinase, Eg2. This interaction causes TPX2 to stimulate both the phosphorylation and the kinase activity of Eg2 in a microtubule-dependent manner. We show that TPX2 and microtubules promote phosphorylation of Eg2 by preventing phosphatase I (PPI)-induced dephosphorylation. Activation of Eg2 by TPX2 and microtubules is inhibited by importin-alpha and -beta, although this inhibition is overcome by Ran-GTP both in the egg extracts and in vitro with purified proteins. As the phosphorylation of Eg2 stimulated by the Ran-GTP-TPX2 pathway is essential for spindle assembly, we hypothesize that the Ran-GTP gradient established by the condensed chromosomes is translated into the Aurora A kinase gradient on the microtubules to regulate spindle assembly and dynamics.

G2 arrest in Xenopus oocytes depends on phosphorylation of cdc25 by protein kinase A.

Xenopus oocytes, which are arrested in G(2) of meiosis I, contain complexes of cyclin B-cdc2 (M phase-promoting factor) that are kept repressed by inhibitory phosphorylations on cdc2 at Thr-14 and Tyr-15. Progesterone induces a cytoplasmic signaling pathway that leads to activation of cdc25, the phosphatase that removes these phosphorylations, catalyzing entry into M phase. It has been known for 25 years that high levels of cAMP and protein kinase A (PKA) are required to maintain the G(2) arrest and that a drop in PKA activity is required for M phase-promoting factor activation, but no physiological targets of PKA have been identified. We present evidence that cdc25 is a critical target of PKA. (i) In vitro, cdc25 Ser-287 serves as a major site of phosphorylation by PKA, resulting in sequestration by 14-3-3. (ii) Endogenous cdc25 is phosphorylated on Ser-287 in oocytes and dephosphorylated in response to progesterone just before cdc2 dephosphorylation and M-phase entry. (iii) High PKA activity maintains phosphorylation of Ser-287 in vivo, whereas inhibition of PKA by its heat-stable inhibitor (PKI) induces dephosphorylation of Ser-287. (iv) Overexpression of mutant cdc25 (S287A) bypasses the ability of PKA to maintain oocytes in G(2) arrest. These findings argue that cdc25 is a physiologically relevant target of PKA in oocytes. In the early embryonic cell cycles, Ser-287 is phosphorylated during interphase and dephosphorylated just before cdc2 activation and mitotic entry. Thus, in addition to its role in checkpoint arrest, cdc25 Ser-287 serves as a site for regulation during normal, unperturbed cell cycles.

Identification of phosphorylated residues that affect the activity of the mitotic kinase Aurora-A.

The activity of the kinase Aurora-A (Aur-A) peaks during mitosis and depends on phosphorylation by one or more unknown kinases. Mitotic phosphorylation sites were mapped by mass spec sequencing of recombinant Aur-A protein that had been activated by incubation in extracts of metaphase-arrested Xenopus eggs. Three sites were identified: serine 53 (Ser-53), threonine 295 (Thr-295), and serine 349 (Ser-349), which are equivalent to Ser-51, Thr-288, and Ser-342, respectively, in human Aur-A. To ask how phosphorylation of these residues might affect kinase activity, each was mutated to either alanine or aspartic acid, and the recombinant proteins were then tested for their ability to be activated by M phase extract. Mutation of Thr-295, which resides in the activation loop of the kinase, to either alanine or aspartic acid abolished activity. The S349A mutant had slightly reduced activity, indicating that phosphorylation is not required for activity. The S349D mutation completely blocked activation, suggesting that Ser-349 is important for either the structure or regulation of Aur-A. Finally, like human Aur-A, overexpression of Xenopus Aur-A transformed NIH 3T3 cells and led to tumors in nude mice. These results provide further evidence that Xenopus Aur-A is a functional ortholog of human Aur-A and, along with the recently described crystal structure of human Aur-A, should help in future studies of the mechanisms that regulate Aur-A activity during mitotic progression.

Identification of a new APC/C recognition domain, the A box, which is required for the Cdh1-dependent destruction of the kinase Aurora-A during mitotic exit.

The mitotic kinase Aurora A (Aur-A) is required for formation of a bipolar mitotic spindle and accurate chromosome segregation. In somatic cells, Aur-A protein and kinase activity levels peak during mitosis, and Aur-A is degraded during mitotic exit. Here, we investigated how Aur-A protein and kinase activity levels are regulated, taking advantage of the rapid synchronous cell division cycles of Xenopus eggs and cell-free systems derived from them. Aur-A kinase activity oscillates in the early embryonic cell cycles, just as in somatic cells, but Aur-A protein levels are constant, indicating that regulated activation and inactivation, instead of periodic proteolysis, is the dominant mode of Aur-A regulation in these cell cycles. Cdh1, the APC/C activator that targets many mitotic proteins for ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis during late mitosis and G1 in somatic cells, is missing in Xenopus eggs and early embryos. We find that addition of Cdh1 to egg extracts undergoing M phase exit is sufficient to induce rapid degradation of Aur-A. Aur-A contains both of the two known APC/C recognition signals, (1) a C-terminal D box similar to those required for ubiquitin-dependent destruction of cyclin B and several other mitotic proteins, and (2) an N-terminal KEN box similar to that found on cdc20, which is ubiquitinated in response to APC/C(Cdh1). The D box is required for Cdh1-induced destruction of Aur-A but the KEN box is not. Destruction also requires a short region in the N terminus, which contains a newly identified recognition signal, the A box. The A box is conserved in vertebrate Aur-As and contains serine 53, which is phosphorylated during M phase. Mutation of serine 53 to aspartic acid, which can mimic the effect of phosphorylation, completely blocks Cdh1-dependent destruction of Aur-A. These results suggest that dephosphorylation of serine 53 during mitotic exit could control the timing of Aur-A destruction, allowing recognition of both the A box and D box by Cdh1-activated APC/C.