Dynamic Distribution of HIG2A between the Mitochondria and the Nucleus in Response to Hypoxia and Oxidative Stress.

Mitochondrial respiratory supercomplex formation requires HIG2A protein, which also has been associated with cell proliferation and cell survival under hypoxia. HIG2A protein localizes in mitochondria and nucleus. DNA methylation and mRNA expression of the HIGD2A gene show significant alterations in several cancers, suggesting a role for HIG2A in cancer biology. The present work aims to understand the dynamics of the HIG2A subcellular localization under cellular stress. We found that HIG2A protein levels increase under oxidative stress. H2O2 shifts HIG2A localization to the mitochondria, while rotenone shifts it to the nucleus. HIG2A protein colocalized at a higher level in the nucleus concerning the mitochondrial network under normoxia and hypoxia (2% O2). Hypoxia (2% O2) significantly increases HIG2A nuclear colocalization in C2C12 cells. In HEK293 cells, chemical hypoxia with CoCl2 (>1% O2) and FCCP mitochondrial uncoupling, the HIG2A protein decreased its nuclear localization and shifted to the mitochondria. This suggests that the HIG2A distribution pattern between the mitochondria and the nucleus depends on stress and cell type. HIG2A protein expression levels increase under cellular stresses such as hypoxia and oxidative stress. Its dynamic distribution between mitochondria and the nucleus in response to stress factors suggests a new communication system between the mitochondria and the nucleus.

Biosystem Analysis of the Hypoxia Inducible Domain Family Member 2A: Implications in Cancer Biology.

The expression of HIGD2A is dependent on oxygen levels, glucose concentration, and cell cycle progression. This gene encodes for protein HIG2A, found in mitochondria and the nucleus, promoting cell survival in hypoxic conditions. The genomic location of HIGD2A is in chromosome 5q35.2, where several chromosomal abnormalities are related to numerous cancers. The analysis of high definition expression profiles of HIGD2A suggests a role for HIG2A in cancer biology. Accordingly, the research objective was to perform a molecular biosystem analysis of HIGD2A aiming to discover HIG2A implications in cancer biology. For this purpose, public databases such as SWISS-MODEL protein structure homology-modelling server, Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC), Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), MethHC: a database of DNA methylation and gene expression in human cancer, and microRNA-target interactions database (miRTarBase) were accessed. We also evaluated, by using Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR), the expression of Higd2a gene in healthy bone marrow-liver-spleen tissues of mice after quercetin (50 mg/kg) treatment. Thus, among the structural features of HIG2A protein that may participate in HIG2A translocation to the nucleus are an importin -dependent nuclear localization signal (NLS), a motif of DNA binding residues and a probable SUMOylating residue. HIGD2A gene is not implicated in cancer via mutation. In addition, DNA methylation and mRNA expression of HIGD2A gene present significant alterations in several cancers; HIGD2A gene showed significant higher expression in Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL). Hypoxic tissues characterize the "bone marrow-liver-spleen" DLBCL type. The relative quantification, by using RT-qPCR, showed that Higd2a expression is higher in bone marrow than in the liver or spleen. In addition, it was observed that quercetin modulated the expression of Higd2a gene in mice. As an assembly factor of mitochondrial respirasomes, HIG2A might be unexpectedly involved in the change of cellular energetics happening in cancer. As a result, it is worth continuing to explore the role of HIGD2A in cancer biology.

Theoretical Study of the Antioxidant Activity of Quercetin Oxidation Products.

It was recently shown that, when tested in cellular systems, quercetin oxidized products (Qox) have significantly better antioxidant activity than quercetin (Q) itself. The main Qox identified in the experiments are either 2,5,7,3',4'-pentahydroxy-3,4-flavandione (Fl) or its tautomer, 2-(3,4-dihydroxybenzoyl)-2,4,6-trihydroxy-3(2H)-benzofuranone (Bf). We have now performed a theoretical evaluation of different physicochemical properties using density functional theory (DFT) calculations on Q and its main Qox species. The most stable structures (for Q and Qox) were identified after a structural search on their potential energy surface. Since proton affinities (PAs) are much lower than the bond dissociation enthalpies (BDEs) of phenolic hydrogens, we consider that direct antioxidant activity in these species is mainly due to the sequential proton loss electron transfer (SPLET) mechanism. Moreover, our kinetic studies, according to transition state theory, show that Q is more favored by this mechanism. However, Qox have lower PAs than Q, suggesting that antioxidant activity by the SPLET mechanism should be a result of a balance between proclivity to transfer protons (which favors Qox) and the reaction kinetics of the conjugated base in the sequential electron transfer mechanism (which favors Q). Therefore, our results support the idea that Q is a better direct antioxidant than its oxidized derivatives due to its kinetically favored SPLET reactions. Moreover, our molecular docking calculations indicate a stabilizing interaction between either Q or Qox and the kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1 (Keap1), in the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-binding site. This should favor the release of the Nrf2 factor, the master regulator of anti-oxidative responses, promoting the expression of the antioxidant responsive element (ARE)-dependent genes. Interestingly, the computed Keap1-metabolite interaction energy is most favored for the Bf compound, which in turn is the most stable oxidized tautomer, according to their computed energies. These results provide further support for the hypothesis that Qox species may be better indirect antioxidants than Q, reducing reactive oxygen species in animal cells by activating endogenous antioxidants.

Alterations of Mitochondrial Biology in the Oral Mucosa of Chilean Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).

Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by the impairment of socio-communicative skills and the presence of restricted and stereotyped behavior patterns. Recent researches have revealed the influence of mitochondrial physiology on the development of ASD. Several research groups have identified defects in respiratory complexes, coenzyme-Q10 deficiency, increased oxidative damage, decreased of superoxide dismutase (SOD2). A study on the influence of mitochondrial physiology on the development of ASD can provide new alternatives and challenges. That is why we set ourselves the general objective to initiate studies of mitochondrial physiology in Chilean children with ASD. A sample of oral mucosa was collected in a group of 12 children diagnosed with ASD and 12 children without ASD. In children with ASD, we found a significant increase in mitochondrial DNA levels. Likewise, in these children, an increase in the protein oxidation was observed. Finally, a downward trend in the expression of the HIGD2A and SOD2 genes was observed, while DRP1, FIS1, MFN1, MFN2, and OPA1 gene expression show an upward trend. The increment of mitochondrial DNA, high oxidative stress, and high expression of the MFN2 gene could help as a scanner of the mitochondrial function in children with ASD.

The OXPHOS supercomplex assembly factor HIG2A responds to changes in energetic metabolism and cell cycle.

HIG2A promotes cell survival under hypoxia and mediates the assembly of complex III and complex IV into respiratory chain supercomplexes. In the present study, we show that human HIGD2A and mouse Higd2a gene expressions are regulated by hypoxia, glucose, and the cell cycle-related transcription factor E2F1. The latter was found to bind the promoter region of HIGD2A. Differential expression of the HIGD2A gene was found in C57BL/6 mice in relation to tissue and age. Besides, the silencing of HIGD2A evidenced the modulation of mitochondrial dynamics proteins namely, OPA1 as a fusion protein increases, while FIS1, a fission protein, decreases. Besides, the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) increased. The protein HIG2A is localized in the mitochondria and nucleus. Moreover, we observed that the HIG2A protein interacts with OPA1. Changes in oxygen concentration, glucose availability, and cell cycle regulate HIGD2A expression. Alterations in HIGD2A expression are associated with changes in mitochondrial physiology.

The Interplay among PINK1/PARKIN/Dj-1 Network during Mitochondrial Quality Control in Cancer Biology: Protein Interaction Analysis.

PARKIN (E3 ubiquitin ligase PARK2), PINK1 (PTEN induced kinase 1) and DJ-1 (PARK7) are proteins involved in autosomal recessive parkinsonism, and carcinogenic processes. In damaged mitochondria, PINK1's importing into the inner mitochondrial membrane is prevented, PARKIN presents a partial mitochondrial localization at the outer mitochondrial membrane and DJ-1 relocates to mitochondria when oxidative stress increases. Depletion of these proteins result in abnormal mitochondrial morphology. PINK1, PARKIN, and DJ-1 participate in mitochondrial remodeling and actively regulate mitochondrial quality control. In this review, we highlight that PARKIN, PINK1, and DJ-1 should be regarded as having an important role in Cancer Biology. The STRING database and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis were performed to consolidate knowledge of well-known protein interactions for PINK1, PARKIN, and DJ-1 and envisage new ones. The enrichment analysis of KEGG pathways showed that the PINK1/PARKIN/DJ-1 network resulted in Parkinson disease as the main feature, while the protein DJ-1 showed enrichment in prostate cancer and p53 signaling pathway. Some predicted transcription factors regulating PINK1, PARK2 (PARKIN) and PARK7 (DJ-1) gene expression are related to cell cycle control. We can therefore suggest that the interplay among PINK1/PARKIN/DJ-1 network during mitochondrial quality control in cancer biology may occur at the transcriptional level. Further analysis, like a systems biology approach, will be helpful in the understanding of PINK1/PARKIN/DJ-1 network.

Alteraciones en el neurodesarrollo en preescolares con antecedente de prematurez: un estudio de corte / Neurodevelopment alterations in preschool children with a history of prematurity: a cross-sectional study / Alterações no neuro desenvolvimento em pré-escolares com antecedente de prematuridade: um estudo de corte

Resumen Antecedentes. Existe evidencia de la relación de la prematurez con alteraciones en el neurodesarrollo y desenlaces negativos en la salud mental. En Colombia no se han realizado estudios a la fecha sobre el tema. Método. Se realizó un estudio transversal que analizó una muestra aleatoria de 96 historias clínicas de preescolares (p=0,05) del Hospital Militar Central en Bogotá, Colombia, excluyendo lesiones neurológicas no relacionadas con el periodo neonatal como secuelas de trauma cráneoencefálico, malformaciones cerebrales, síndromes genéticos identificados y maltrato infantil. Se aplicó la escala abreviada del desarrollo (EAD-1) y la Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) y se tomaron datos sociodemográficos. Resultados. Se presentaron correlaciones positivas y significativas estadísticamente, entre la edad gestacional y la mayoría de las subescalas de neurodesarrollo, excepto en la subescala de motor grueso (p=0,063): fino/adaptativo (p=0,019), audición/lenguaje (p=0,011) y personal/social (p=0,041); y, de forma similar, entre el peso al nacer y la mayoría de las subescalas de neurodesarrollo, excepto en la subescala de motor grueso (p=0,60): fino/adaptativo (p=0,007), audición/lenguaje (p=0,010) y personal/social (p=0,010). Esta última fue la mayor correlación de todas. Conclusiones. Este estudio muestra que los niños con antecedente de prematurez presentan mayor riesgo de problemas en el desarrollo, sobre todo quienes presentaron peso al nacer inferior a 1500 gramos o menos de 32 semanas de edad gestacional, lo que correlaciona las alteraciones en el neurodesarrollo con las alteraciones comportamentales en el grupo de niños estudiado. Existen pocos reportes del cuidado de la salud y la rehabilitación durante la infancia para los niños pretérmino; en el Hospital Militar Central, por ser un hospital que cuenta con un programa de seguimiento de alto riesgo neurológico, lo resultados sugieren que la identificación temprana de los trastornos del neurodesarrollo y sus factores de riesgo así como la intervención oportuna son importantes en el cuidado continuo de esta población.

Summary Background: There is evidence linking prematurity with alterations in neurodevelopment and negative outcomes in mental health. To date, there have been no studies caried out on the subject in Colombia. Method: A cross-sectional study was carried out in order to analyze a random sample of 96 preschool children's clinical records (p=0.05) from the Central Military Hospital in Bogotá, Colombia, excluding neurological injuries unrelated to the neonatal period, such as consequences of traumatic brain injury, brain malformations, identified genetic syndromes, and child abuse. The abbreviated scale of development (EAD-1) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were applied and sociodemographic data was obtained. Results: Positive and statistically significant correlations were found between gestational age and most of the neurodevelopmental subscales, except for the coarse motor subscale (p=0.063): fine/adaptive (p=0.019), hearing/language (p=0.011), and personal/social (p=0.041); and, similarly, between birth weight and most of the neurodevelopmental subscales, except for the coarse motor subscale (p=0.60): fine/adaptive (p=0.007), hearing/language (p=0.010), and personal/social (p=0.010). The latter had the highest correlation of all. Conclusions: This study shows that children which were born prematurely have an increased risk of developmental problems, especially those whose birth weight was lower than 1500 grams or those who had had a gestational age of less than 32 weeks; in turn, correlating the neurodevelopment alterations with behavioral alterations in the group of children studied. There are not many reports related to health care and rehabilitation during infancy for children born prematurely. Given that the Central Military Hospital is a hospital with a high-risk neurological follow-up program, the results suggest that early identification of neurodevelopmental disorders and their risk factors, as well as timely intervention, are important for continued care of this population.

Resumo Antecedentes. Existe evidencia da relação da prematuridade com alterações no neuro desenvolvimento e desenlaces negativos na saúde mental. Na Colômbia, até a presente data não se realizaram estudos sobre o tema. Método. Fez-se um estudo transversal que analisou uma amostra aleatória de 96 histórias clínicas de pré-escolares (p=0,05) do Hospital Militar Central em Bogotá, Colômbia, excluindo lesões neurológicas não relacionadas com o período neonatal como sequelas de trauma crâneo encefálico, malformações cerebrais, síndromes genéticas identificadas e maltrato infantil. Aplicou-se a escala abreviada do desenvolvimento (EAD-1) e a Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) e se tomaram dados sócio demográficos. Resultados. Apresentaram-se correlações positivas e significativas estatisticamente, entre a idade gestacional e a maioria das subescalas de neurodesenvolvimento, exceto na subescala de motor grosso (p=0,063): fino/adaptativo (p=0,019), audição/linguagem (p=0,011) e pessoal/social (p=0,041); e, de forma similar, entre o peso ao nascer e a maioria das subescalas de neurodesenvolvimento, exceto na subescala de motor grosso (p=0,60): fino/adaptativo (p=0,007), audição/linguagem (p=0,010) e pessoal/social (p=0,010). Esta última foi a maior correlação de todas. Conclusões. Este estudo mostra que as crianças com antecedente de prematuridade apresentam mais risco de problemas no desenvolvimento, sobretudo aquelas que apresentaram peso ao nascer inferior a 1.500 gramos ou menos de 32 semanas de idade gestacional, o que correlaciona as alterações no neuro desenvolvimento com as alterações comportamentais no grupo de crianças estudado. Existem poucos relatórios do cuidado da saúde e reabilitação durante a infância para as crianças prematuras; no Hospital Militar Central, por ser um hospital que conta com um programa de seguimento de alto risco neurológico, os resultados sugerem que a identificação precoce dos transtornos do neuro desenvolvimento e seus fatores de risco assim como a intervenção oportuna são importantes no cuidado contínuo desta população.

Adaptive responses of mitochondria to mild copper deprivation involve changes in morphology, OXPHOS remodeling and bioenergetics.

Copper is an essential cofactor of complex IV of the electron transfer chain, and it is directly involved in the generation of mitochondrial membrane potential. Its deficiency induces the formation of ROS, large mitochondria and anemia. Thus, there is a connection between copper metabolism and bioenergetics, mitochondrial dynamics and erythropoiesis. Copper depletion might end in cellular apoptosis or necrosis. However, before entering into those irreversible processes, mitochondria may execute a series of adaptive responses. Mitochondrial adaptive responses (MAR) may involve multiple and diverse mechanisms for preserving cell life, such as mitochondrial dynamics, OXPHOS remodeling and bioenergetics output. In this study, a mild copper deficiency was produced in an animal model through intraperitoneal injections of bathocuproine disulfonate in order to study the MAR. Under these conditions, a new type of mitochondrial morphology was discovered in the liver. Termed the "butternut squash" mitochondria, it coexisted with normal and swollen mitochondria. Western blot analyses of mitochondrial dynamics proteins showed an up-regulation of MFN-2 and OPA1 fusion proteins. Furthermore, isolated liver mitochondria displayed OXPHOS remodeling through a decrease in supercomplex activity with a concomitant increase at an individual level of complexes I and IV, higher respiratory rates at complex I and II levels, higher oligomycin-insensitive respiration, and lower respiratory control ratio values when compared to the control group. As expected, total ATP and ATP/ADP values were not significantly different, since animal's health was not compromised. As a whole, these results describe a compensatory and adaptive response of metabolism and bioenergetics under copper deprivation.

Why is quercetin a better antioxidant than taxifolin? Theoretical study of mechanisms involving activated forms.

The stronger antioxidant capacity of the flavonoid quercetin (Q) compared with taxifolin (dihydroquercetin, T) has been the subject of previous experimental and theoretical studies. Theoretical work has focused on the analysis of hydrogen bond dissociation energies (BDE) of the OH phenolic groups, but consider mechanisms that only involve the transfer of one hydrogen atom. In the present work we consider other mechanisms involving a second hydrogen transfer in reactions with free radicals. The relative stability of the radicals formed after the first hydrogen transfer reaction is considered in discussing the antioxidant activity of Q and T. In terms of global and local theoretical reactivity descriptors, we propose that the radical arising from Q should be more persistent in the environment and with the capability to react with a second radical by hydrogen transfer, proton transfer and electron transfer mechanisms. These mechanisms could be responsible of the stronger antioxidant capacity of Q.

Immune response in mice and cattle after immunization with a Boophilus microplus DNA vaccine containing bm86 gene.

Plasmid pBMC2 encoding antigen Bm86 from a Colombian strain of cattle tick Boophilus microplus, was used for DNA-mediated immunization of BALB/c mice, employing doses of 10 and 50microg, delivered by intradermic and intramuscular routes. Anti-Bm86 antibody levels were significantly higher compared to control mice treated with PBS. In the evaluation of immunoglobulin isotypes, significant levels of IgG2a and IgG2b were observed in mice immunized with 50microg of pBMC2. Measurement of interleukine (IL) levels (IL-4, IL-5, IL-12(p40)) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in the sera of mice immunized with pBMC2 indicated high levels of IL-4 and IL-5, although there were also significant levels of IFN-gamma. Mice immunized with pBMC2 showed antigen-specific stimulation of splenocytes according to the incorporation of bromodeoxyuridine and IFN-gamma secretion. In all trials, mice injected intramuscularly with 50microg of pBMC2 presented the highest immune response. Moreover, cattle immunized with this DNA vaccine showed antibody production significantly different to the negative control. In conclusion, these results suggest the potential of DNA immunization with pBMC2 to induce humoral and cellular immune responses against B. microplus.

A theoretical analysis of codon adaptation index of the Boophilus microplus bm86 gene directed to the optimization of a DNA vaccine.

DNA vaccines utilize host cell molecules for gene transcription and translation to proteins, and the interspecific difference of codon usage is one of the major obstacles for effective induction of specific and strong immune response. In an attempt to improve codon usage effects of DNA vaccine on protein expression, a quantitative study was conducted to clarify the relationship of codon usage in the tick gene bm86 and its potential expression in bovine cells. The calculated relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU) and codon adaptation index (CAI) values of bm86 from Boophilus microplus and a set of 14 highly expressed genes from Bos taurus indicated that some codons utilized frequently in bm86 are rarely used in B. taurus genes and vice versa. The different translational efficiencies obtained suggested that after DNA vaccination using the wild bm86 gene, the protein Bm86 would be expressed in bovines, but it would not be the optimum sequence. However, using the codon-optimized bm86 gene to bovines, whose sequence was theoretically designed, would probably improve the level of the immune response generated against ticks.

The injection of plasmid DNA in mouse muscle results in lifelong persistence of DNA, gene expression, and humoral response.

The duration of the immune response against any vaccine is critical. The present study was performed to determine the stability of injected plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the duration of gene expression in mouse muscle, as well as the duration of the immune response generated in mice after injection of plasmid pSO2C1 harboring the cry11Bb gene of Bacillus thuringiensis serovar. medellin. The localization and the persistence of the inoculated gene were determined by in situ hybridization and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results demonstrated that plasmid DNA can persist in mouse muscle for up to 2 yr. Moreover, immunohistochemical analysis showed that Cry11Bb protein was expressed for the lifetime of the mice at a low but significant level. Finally, production of Cry11Bb-specific antibodies in mice injected with pSO2C1 was high and durable as significant antibody titers were observed up to 119 wk after injection of the plasmid. This persistent immune response is likely owing to the existence of a protein and/or DNA depot in the organism, which serves to maintain the immune response, acting as a secondary or booster immunization.

In vivo binding of the Cry11Bb toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellin to the midgut of mosquito larvae (Diptera: Culicidae).

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellin produces numerous proteins among which 94 kDa known as Cry11Bb, has mosquitocidal activity. The mode of action of the Cry11 proteins has been described as similar to those of the Cry1 toxins, nevertheless, the mechanism of action is still not clear. In this study we investigated the in vivo binding of the Cry11Bb toxin to the midgut of the insect species Anopheles albimanus, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus by immunohistochemical analysis. Spodoptera frugiperda was included as negative control. The Cry11Bb protein was detected on the apical microvilli of the midgut epithelial cells, mostly on the posterior midgut and gastric caeca of the three mosquito species. Additionally, the toxin was detected in the Malpighian tubules of An. albimanus, Ae. aegypti, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and in the basal membrane of the epithelial cells of Ae. aegypti midgut. No toxin accumulation was observed in the peritrophic membrane of any of the mosquito species studied. These results confirm that the primary site of action of the Cry11 toxins is the apical membrane of the midgut epithelial cells of mosquito larvae.

In vivo binding of the Cry11Bb toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellin to the midgut of mosquito larvae (Diptera: Culicidae)

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. medellin produces numerous proteins among which 94 kDa known as Cry11Bb, has mosquitocidal activity. The mode of action of the Cry11 proteins has been described as similar to those of the Cry1 toxins, nevertheless, the mechanism of action is still not clear. In this study we investigated the in vivo binding of the Cry11Bb toxin to the midgut of the insect species Anopheles albimanus, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus by immunohistochemical analysis. Spodoptera frugiperda was included as negative control. The Cry11Bb protein was detected on the apical microvilli of the midgut epithelial cells, mostly on the posterior midgut and gastric caeca of the three mosquito species. Additionally, the toxin was detected in the Malpighian tubules of An. albimanus, Ae. aegypti, Cx. quinquefasciatus, and in the basal membrane of the epithelial cells of Ae. aegypti midgut. No toxin accumulation was observed in the peritrophic membrane of any of the mosquito species studied. These results confirm that the primary site of action of the Cry11 toxins is the apical membrane of the midgut epithelial cells of mosquito larvae.