A State-of-the-Art Review on the Role of Cognitive and Motor Reserve on Quality of Life: A Focus on Cardiovascular Patients in a Lifespan Perspective.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) reflect a huge and diversified condition that influences patient quality of life (QoL) both in the physical and mental aspects, especially in older adults who often present comorbidities and may be affected by cognitive decline. The concept of cognitive reserve (CR), which is built through life course experiences, has widely been considered a protective factor against cognitive decline, while the results of QoL in the field of CVDs are still controversial. In particular, there is a lack of evidence that explicitly explores the effects of CR on the QoL in CVD cases since studies have considered only single CR proxies (e.g., education) or specific cardiovascular conditions. Moreover, none of them have considered the motor reserve (MR), another recent concept that considers the amount of physical activity carried out during a lifespan. Its potential role in preventing age-related diseases has been observed, but more clarification is needed given the importance of the physical component in CVDs. The present state-of-the-art review aims to (i) examine how the literature conceives CR and its proxies in CVDs relating to QoL and (ii) integrate the concept of MR in this framework. Implications for clinical practice will also be discussed.

The Functional Neuroimaging of Autobiographical Memory for Happy Events: A Coordinate-Based Meta-Analysis.

Neuroimaging studies using autobiographical recall methods investigated the neural correlates of happy autobiographical memories (AMs). The scope of the present activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis was to quantitatively analyze neuroimaging studies of happy AMs conducted with autobiographical recall paradigms. A total of 17 studies (12 fMRI; 5 PET) on healthy individuals were included in this meta-analysis. During recall of happy life events, consistent activation foci were found in the frontal gyrus, the cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, the parahippocampus/hippocampus, the hypothalamus, and the thalamus. The result of this quantitative coordinate-based ALE meta-analysis provides an objective view of brain responses associated with AM recollection of happy events, thus identifying brain areas consistently activated across studies. This extended brain network included frontal and limbic regions involved in remembering emotionally relevant positive events. The frontal gyrus and the cingulate cortex may be responsible for cognitive appraisal processes during recollection of happy AMs, while the subthalamic nucleus and globus pallidus may be involved in pleasure reactions associated with recollection of happy life events. These findings shed light on the neural network involved in recalling positive AMs in healthy individuals, opening further avenues for future research in clinical populations with mood disorders.

Predictors of Psychological Well-Being and Quality of Life in Patients with Hypertension: A Longitudinal Study.

Previous research has highlighted the positive impact of greater health-related quality of life (Hr-QoL) and subjective well-being (SWB) on chronic diseases' severity and progression. There is a paucity of studies investigating the long-term trajectories of these variables among hypertensive patients. The present study aims to investigate the relationships between psychological variables (Type A and D personality, locus of control-LoC, self-esteem, and trait anxiety) with SWB and Hr-QoL in patients with hypertension and comorbid metabolic syndrome. A total of 185 volunteer patients (130 males, 70.3%; mean age 54 ± 10.93) were enrolled. Patients filled out measures of Hr-QoL and SWB, LoC, and self-esteem at three time points-Type A and D behaviors and anxiety measures only at baseline. Analyses were run through two-level hierarchical mixed models with repeated measures (Level 1) nested within participants (Level 2), controlling for sociodemographic and clinical confounders. Neither Hr-QoL nor SWB changed over time. Patients with greater self-esteem and internal LoC (and lower external LoC) increased their SWB and Hr-QoL up to 1-year follow-up. A greater Type A behavior and trait anxiety at baseline predicted a longitudinal increase in most of the dependent variables. Results suggest that it could be useful to tailor interventions targeting specific variables to increase Hr-QoL and SWB among hypertensive patients.

Can Creativity and Cognitive Reserve Predict Psychological Well-Being in Older Adults? The Role of Divergent Thinking in Healthy Aging.

The maintenance of psychological well-being (PWB) in the older adult population is a pivotal goal for our rapidly aging society. PWB is a multicomponent construct that can be influenced by several factors in the lifespan. The beneficial role of divergent thinking (DT) and cognitive reserve (CR) in sustaining older subjects' PWB has been scarcely investigated so far. The present study aims to investigate the relationships between DT, CR, and PWB in a sample of 121 healthy older adults (61 females; M age: 73.39 ± 6.66 years; M education: 11.33 ± 4.81 years). The results highlight that better DT performance predicts higher CR, which mediates an indirect positive effect of DT on emotional competence, one of the PWB factors. It follows that DT and CR can be considered protective factors in aging, and their effects go beyond cognitive functioning, revealing a positive effect even on some PWB components. The practical implications regarding targeted health interventions for prevention in the older adult population to support well-being and promote healthy aging are discussed.

The Role of Cognition in Divergent Thinking: Implications for Successful Aging.

Promoting active and successful aging has become crucial to improve quality of life in later adulthood and reduce the impact of cognitive decline. Increasing evidence suggested that the ability to think creatively (e.g., via divergent thinking), similar to cognitive reserve, could represent a beneficial factor against the negative effects of aging. However, there is still little evidence investigating the relationships between divergent thinking, cognitive functions, and cognitive reserve in late adulthood. The present study explored these relationships in a sample of 98 individuals ranging from 61 to 88 years old (mean age: 72.44 ± 6.35). Results showed that visual, but not verbal, divergent thinking was affected by aging. Interestingly, visual divergent thinking performance was predicted by both the cognitive component of crystallized intelligence and cognitive reserve. Only the crystallized component of intelligence was found to mediate the aging effect on visual divergent thinking performance. These results suggest that in later adulthood a potential shift strategy to prior knowledge and semantic components over executive and control components of cognition could underlie a preserved ability to think divergently and, plausibly, creatively. Limitations of the study and implications for successful aging are discussed.

Decision-making abilities under risk and ambiguity in adults with traumatic brain injury: what do we know so far? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health and socio-economic problem since it is one of the major sources of death and disability worldwide. TBI patients usually show high heterogeneity in their clinical features, including both cognitive and emotional/behavioral alterations. As it specifically concerns cognitive functioning, these patients usually show decision-making (DM) deficits. DM is commonly considered a complex and multistep process that is strictly linked to both hot and cold executive functioning and is pivotal for daily life functioning and patients' autonomy. However, the results are not always in agreement, with some studies that report huge alterations in the DM processes, while others do not. The present systematic review and meta-analysis aims to integrate past literature on this topic, providing a clear and handy picture both for researchers and clinicians. Thirteen studies addressing domain-general DM abilities were included from an initial N = 968 (from three databases). Results showed low heterogeneity between the studies (I2 = 7.90, Q (12) = 13.03, p = .37) supporting the fact that, overall, TBI patients showed lower performance in DM tasks as compared to healthy controls (k = 899, g = .48, 95% CI [0.33; 0.62]) both in tasks under ambiguity and under risk. The evidence that emerged from this meta-analysis denotes a clear deficit of DM abilities in TBI patients. However, DM tasks seemed to have good sensitivity but low specificity. A detailed description of patients' performances and the role of both bottom-up, hot executive functions and top-down control functions have been further discussed. Finally, future directions and practical implications for both researchers and clinicians have been put forward.

Normative data for COGITAB: An Italian tablet-based test battery conceived for the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's disease.

The number of people with dementia is increasing worldwide. Two main approaches have been adopted to identify subjects with Alzheimer's disease (AD): the neuropsychological evaluation and the identification of biomarkers of AD. The first method is less invasive and easier to perform. This study assesses the psychometric properties of COGITAB, a novel web application d esigned to be sensitive to the subtle cognitive changes distinctive of the early Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and the preclinical phase of AD. We enrolled 518 healthy controls, classified according to several risk factors and the presence of a family history of dementia. The participants were given COGITAB after a neuropsychological screening. The COGITAB Total Score (TS) was significantly affected by age and years of education. Acquired risk factors and family history of dementia significantly impacted only the COGITAB total execution time (TET), not the TS. This study provides normative data for a newly developed web application. Control subjects with acquired risk factors performed slower, giving an important role to the TET recording. Further studies should examine the ability of this new technology to discriminate between healthy subjects and subjects with initial cognitive decline, even when not detected by standard neuropsychological assessments.

Eye-to-Hand Coordination in Obstructive Sleep APNEA Syndrome: a Descriptive Study.

OBJECTIVE: Psychomotor slowdown was observed in individuals with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome (OSAS). Previous studies evaluated separately cognitive and motor reaction times, finding that OSAS individuals show a specific impairment in the latter. The present study investigates whether eye-to-hand coordination (EHC), a specific psychomotor ability, is compromised in OSAS. METHOD: The EHC was measured in 30 OSAS individuals who were matched with 30 healthy controls by the Two-Hand Coordination Test analyzing the speed, accuracy, and coordination; the role of these variables was investigated in predicting the group they belonged to. RESULTS: The OSAS participants showed poorer performance in the execution accuracy (t(55) = -3.36, d'Cohen = -0.89, p ≤ .001), which was also found to be the only predictor of the belonging to group (ß = 0.43 (0.18), p < .05). CONCLUSIONS: The OSAS individuals show impairments in EHC and in correcting their error (executive slowdown). This is the first investigation exploring EHC coordination in this population and contributes in understanding the psychomotor slowness characterizing OSAS.

Aging and Psychological Well-Being: The Possible Role of Inhibition Skills.

(1) Background: Psychological well-being (PWB) is a multidimensional construct which is a key protective factor against chronic diseases in older adults. Numerous psychological and cognitive factors can influence older people's PWB. However, while most studies have explored the effect of general cognition, only a few investigated the role of specific cognitive functions such as the efficiency of executive functions. Thus, the present study aimed to directly explore the relationships between PWB, age, and the core executive functions (namely working memory, flexibility, and inhibition). (2) Methods: A sample of 51 healthy older adults (age range: 60-88) were enrolled and tested both for PWB (by Ryff's psychological well-being scale) and the core executive functions (by the Digit span backward, the Trail Making Test, and the Stroop test). (3) Results: Age and inhibitory skills are negatively correlated to the personal growth subscale of the PWB scale. Moreover, a hierarchical regression analysis showed that inhibition, but not working memory and flexibility, predicted the sense of continued growth and development (personal growth) of older adults, even after controlling for age and educational levels. Limitations and implications for future research and prevention interventions are discussed.

Action and emotion perception in Parkinson's disease: A neuroimaging meta-analysis.

Patients with Parkinson disease (PD) may show impairments in the social perception. Whether these deficits have been consistently reported, it remains to be clarified which brain alterations subtend them. To this aim, we conducted a neuroimaging meta-analysis to compare the brain activity during social perception in patients with PD versus healthy controls. Our results show that PD patients exhibit a significantly decreased response in the basal ganglia (putamen and pallidum) and a trend toward decreased activity in the mirror system, particularly in the left parietal cortex (inferior parietal lobule and intraparietal sulcus). This reduced activation may be tied to a disruption of cognitive resonance mechanisms and may thus constitute the basis of impaired others' representations underlying action and emotion perception. We also found increased activation in the posterior cerebellum in PD, although only in a within-group analysis and not in comparison with healthy controls. This cerebellar activation may reflect compensatory mechanisms, an aspect that deserves further investigation. We discuss the clinical implications of our findings for the development of novel social skill training programs for PD patients.

Divergent thinking and the core executive functions: a state-of-the-art review.

The study of the relationships between divergent thinking and the core executive functions is long standing. However, the literature on this topic is not conclusive. The present review was aimed to clarify the extent to which divergent thinking is related to the core executive functions, namely inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility. The main findings showed that divergent thinking is supported by inhibition in terms of flexible attention changes. Working memory appears to play a key role in enabling semantic associations when the focus of attention is narrowed. Then, although cognitive flexibility is a key element of divergent thinking, only a few studies independently investigated its contribution. Taken together, the results suggest that divergent thinking relies on the ability to switch between different mechanisms according to the individual's ability and task demands. Future research directions are also discussed.

How Untidiness Moves the Motor System.

Humans tend to prefer order to disorder. Orderly environments may provide individuals with comfort due to predictability, allowing a more efficient interaction with objects. Accordingly, a disorderly environment may elicit a tendency to restore order. This order restoration tendency may be observed physiologically as modulation within corticospinal excitability; the latter has been previously associated with motor preparation. To test these hypothesized physiological indices of order restoration, we measured possible changes in corticospinal excitability, as reflected by the amplitude of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the primary motor cortex while participants viewed ordered and disordered rooms. We found that images depicting disorderly environments suppressed excitability within the corticospinal tract, in line with prior findings that motor preparation is typically associated with decreased corticospinal excitability. Interestingly, this pattern was particularly evident in individuals that displayed subclinical levels of obsessive-compulsive traits. Thus, a disorderly environment may move the motor system to restore a disorderly environment into a more orderly and predictable environment, and preparation for "order" may be observed on a sensorimotor basis.

Developmental Topographical Disorientation With Concurrent Face Recognition Deficit: A Case Report.

Developmental topographical disorientation (DTD) has been defined as a developmental deficit in human navigational skills in the absence of congenital or acquired brain damage. We report the case of Lost In Space Again (LISA), a 22-year-old woman with a normal development and no clinical history of neurological or psychiatric diseases, evaluated twice, with an interval of 5 years. The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examination did not reveal any morphological alteration, while diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) showed a structural connectivity deficit (a decreased fractional anisotropy-FA) in the parieto-prefrontal and parieto-premotor pathway. The behavioral assessment showed different deficits in spatial and navigational tasks, which seemed to be connected to a poor ability to form a cognitive map of the environment. Moreover, LISA displayed a poor performance in high-level face encoding and retrieval. The aim of this case report is to share new insight about DTD in order to deepen the knowledge of this specific neurodevelopmental disorder. In conclusion, this novel DTD case (1) supports the hypothesis of the existence of different DTD subtypes; (2) sustains the evidence that DTD can co-occur (or not) with deficit in face recognition; and (3) highlights the need for an in-depth examination from both a neurocognitive and behavioral point of view of a possible common developmental defect between the formation of cognitive maps and the recognition of faces that might be in mental imagery skills. Future directions will be also discussed.

Divergent Thinking Abilities in Frontotemporal Dementia: A Mini-Review.

A large number of studies, including single case and case series studies, have shown that patients with different types of frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are characterized by the emergence of artistic abilities. This led to the hypothesis of enhanced creative thinking skills as a function of these pathological conditions. However, in the last years, it has been argued that these brain pathologies lead only to an augmented "drive to produce" rather than to the emergence of creativity. Moreover, only a few studies analyzed specific creative skills, such as divergent thinking (DT), by standardized tests. This Mini-Review aimed to examine the extent to which DT abilities are preserved in patients affected by FTD. Results showed that DT abilities (both verbal and figural) are altered in different ways according to the specific anatomical and functional changes associated with the diverse forms of FTD. On the one hand, patients affected by the behavioral form of FTD can produce many ideas because of unimpaired access to memory stores (i.e., episodic and semantic), but are not able to recombine flexibly the information to produce original ideas because of damages in the pre-frontal cortex. On the other hand, patients affected by the semantic variant are impaired also in terms of fluency because of the degradation of their semantic memory store. Potential implications, limitations, and future research directions are discussed.

Hypomania, Depression, Euthymia: New Evidence in Parkinson's Disease.

The field related to mood disorders in Parkinson's disease (PD) is fragmented. The aim of this cohort observational study was to evaluate whether the episodes of mood alteration could appear in different disease stages and to verify how nonmotor symptoms were led off into different stages. We enrolled 93 PD outpatients (three groups: drug naive-DN; not exhibiting motor fluctuations-n-MF; and exhibiting motor fluctuations-MF) and 50 healthy controls. Mood state was assessed through the Internal State Scale (ISS) while depressive symptoms were evaluated through the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), nonmotor symptoms by means of the Non-Motor Symptoms Scale (NMSS), and the presence of impulse control disorders (ICDs) with the Questionnaire for Impulsive-Compulsive Disorders in Parkinson's Disease (QUIP). Clinical and pharmacological data have also been recorded. No significant differences in mood state distribution between groups were observed. Nevertheless, as regards the mood state distribution within groups, in n-MF (47.6%) and MF patients (50%), (hypo)mania presence was significantly higher than other symptoms. In DN patients, hypomania showed a prevalence of 38.1% although it was not significant. At least one ICD was reported in 29.3% of n-MF and 50% of MF patients. In the MF group, a moderate positive correlation between ISS ACTivation subscale scores and the presence of ICDs and compulsive medication use emerged. Finally, MF patients reported higher BDI-II total scores than DN. Our results show that mood alterations in PD, considering both depressive symptoms and mood elevation, are related to the advanced stages of the disease as well as the presence of ICDs, and dopaminergic therapy would not always be able to restore a normal mood condition.

Modulation of corticospinal excitability during paintings viewing: A TMS study.

It has been hypothesized that embodied mechanisms encompassing the simulation of actions, emotions and corporeal sensations contribute to aesthetic appreciation of art. In line with this, in this study we assessed whether there is a relationship between the extent to which an artwork triggers motor resonance mechanisms and liking for the artwork. To this aim, we measured motor evoked potentials (MEPs) induced by TMS over M1 whilst participants viewed a series of paintings depicting either humans in static postures or performing dynamic actions, and paintings depicting static or dynamic non-human scenes. Following recording of MEPs, participants indicated how much they liked each painting and found the painting to be dynamic. Viewing of paintings depicting dynamic human actions was associated with a significant increase in MEPs size compared to baseline and to viewing of the other paintings. The more the painting conveyed the impression of a dynamic human action, the higher the MEPs amplitude and the more the artwork was liked. However, liking per se was not related to MEPs size. In fact, the positive relationship between MEPs size and preference for paintings depicting humans was entirely mediated by the perceived dynamism of the portrayed actions, and no positive relationship was observed between subjective preference for paintings depicting landscapes/objects and MEPs size. Overall, our data contribute to shed light on the possible role of embodied resonance mechanisms in aesthetic appreciation of visual art, and show that characterization of motor cortical excitability may serve as a promising approach in neuroaesthetics.

Viewing of figurative paintings affects pseudoneglect as measured by line bisection.

Neurologically intact individuals usually show a leftward bias in spatial attention, known as pseudoneglect, likely reflecting a right-hemisphere dominance in the control of spatial attention. A leftward bias also seems to manifest when individuals are asked to provide aesthetic judgments about visual stimuli, like artworks. However, whether artwork perception affects the allocation of spatial attention has never been directly investigated. Here, we assessed whether viewing figurative paintings affects hemispheric imbalance in the control of spatial attention by asking participants to bisect a series of lines presented on a grey background, on figurative paintings or on non-artistic photographs of real-world scenes, while either simply observing or explicitly evaluating each image. In line with previous evidence, participants showed a leftward bisection bias in the baseline condition, reflecting pseudoneglect. Critically, the presence of a painting in the background (irrespective of whether an aesthetic evaluation was required or not) significantly shifted the bias further to the left compared to when lines were bisected over a grey background (baseline) or a photographed scene. This finding suggests that perception of visual art may affect the control of spatial attention, possibly tapping on right-hemisphere resources related to visuospatial exploration, regardless of reward apprehension mechanisms (at least when images do not evoke strong emotional reactions leading to polarized like/dislike judgements).

A Comparison of Divergent Thinking Abilities Between Healthy Elderly Subjects and MCI Patients: Preliminary Findings and Implications.

OBJECTIVE: Divergent thinking (DT) has attracted research interest because of its potential role in early diagnosis and rehabilitation programs for patients affected by neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, DT has received even more attention because of its proven relationship with cognitive reserve (CR) and the possibility of a standardized assessment. However, few studies have investigated this ability in dementia patients, and even less is known about patients affected by Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). Thus, this study aims to investigate DT abilities in MCI patients. METHODS: A total of 25 MCI patients and 25 healthy controls subjects (HC; from a random selection of 50) matched for age, gender, and educational level were enrolled. General cognitive functioning was measured by the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), while the Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA) was selected to measure DT. RESULTS: MANOVA analysis did not reveal any significant differences in DT abilities between MCI patients and HC except for the figural indicator score. A logistic hierarchical regression analysis revealed that the figural indicator score added an 8% of accuracy in the prediction of the group variable over the general cognition measure (MoCA). CONCLUSION: MCI patients seem to perform significantly worse than HC only in the figural DT score and this evidence has significant practical implications. First, that figural DT seemed to decrease even earlier than verbal DT and could therefore be taken into account for early diagnosis of MCI patients. On the contrary, the sparing of all the other DT skills (such as verbal DT skills, fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration) may suggest that, given its relationship with CR, verbal DT could instead be considered a possible target for prevention or early cognitive stimulation interventions.

The left posterior cerebellum is involved in orienting attention along the mental number line: An online-TMS study.

Although converging evidence suggests that the posterior cerebellum is involved in visuospatial functions and in the orienting of attention, a clear topography of cerebellar regions causally involved in the control of spatial attention is still missing. In this study, we aimed to shed light on this issue by using online neuronavigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to temporarily interfere with posterior medial (Vermis lobule VII) and left lateral (Crus I/II) cerebellar activity during a task measuring visuospatial (landmark task, Experiment 1 and 2) and representational (number bisection task, Experiment 2) asymmetries in the orienting of attention. At baseline, participants showed attentional biases consistent with the literature, that is a leftward and upward bias with horizontal and vertical lines, respectively, and a leftward bias in number bisection. Critically, TMS over the left cerebellar hemisphere significantly counteracted pseudoneglect in the number bisection task, whilst not affecting attentional biases in the landmark task. In turn, TMS over the posterior vermis did not affect performance in either task. Taken together, our findings suggest that the left posterior cerebellar hemisphere (but not the posterior vermis) is a critical node of an extended brain network subtending the control of spatial attention, at least when attention needs to be allocated to an internal representational space and a certain degree of mental manipulation is required (as in the number bisection task).

Expectancy to Eat Modulates Cognitive Control and Attention Toward Irrelevant Food and Non-food Images in Healthy Starving Individuals. A Behavioral Study.

It is thought that just as hunger itself, the expectancy to eat impacts attention and cognitive control toward food stimuli, but this theory has not been extensively explored at a behavioral level. In order to study the effect of expectancy to eat on attentional and cognitive control mechanisms, 63 healthy fasting participants were presented with an affective priming spatial compatibility Simon task that included both food and object (non-food) distracters. The participants (N = 63) were randomly assigned to two groups: an "immediate expectancy" group made up of participants who expected to eat immediately after the task (N = 31; females = 21; age = 26.8 ± 9.6) and a "delayed expectancy" cohort made up of individuals who expected to eat a few hours later (N = 32; females = 21; age = 25.0 ± 8.0). Slower reaction times (RTs) toward the food and non-food distracters and a more pronounced effect on the RTs in the incompatible condition [i.e., the Simon effect (SE)] were noted in both groups. The effect of the food and non-food distracters on the RTs was more pronounced in the immediate with respect to the delayed expectancy group. The magnitude of the SE for the food and the non-food distracters was also greater in the immediate with respect to the delayed expectancy group. These results seem to indicate that when the expectancy to eat is short, the RTs are delayed, and the SE is more pronounced when food and non-food distracters are presented. Instead, when the expectancy to eat is more distant, the distracters have less of an effect on the RTs and the correspondence effect is smaller. Our results suggest that the expectancy to eat can modulate both attention orienting and cognitive control mechanisms in healthy fasting individuals when distracting details are competing with information processing during goal directed behavior.