Solar photo-assisted electrochemical processes applied to actual industrial and urban wastewaters: A practical approach based on recent literature.

The application of electrochemical processes for wastewater treatment has increase significantly in the last two decades. However, most of the works are focused on lab-scale systems testing in saline simulated solutions spiked with a reference organic compound, evidencing the scarcity of studies on actual wastewaters through a more realistic practical approach. The aim of the present work is assessing the performance of electrochemical treatments in actual matrices, considering the formation of different oxidants species, apart from hydroxyl radicals, from dissolved ions contained in target effluents as well as both, the regeneration of Fe2+ and their combination with a light irradiation source. The degradation of a mix of microcontaminants in water matrices with different complexity by solar photoelectron-Fenton at natural pH and at pilot scale has been carried out at Plataforma Solar de Almería. Higher degradation rates were obtained when focusing on the more complex and saline matrices. In addition, complex industrial wastewaters mineralization was also studied by means of solar assisted electro-oxidation, showing the crucial role of ammonium concentration in the effluent, since it acts as a competitor for active chlorine species and so reducing the mineralization rate.

Carbon-based cathodes degradation during electro-Fenton treatment at pilot scale: Changes in H2O2 electrogeneration.

Autopsy of carbon-PTFE cathodes was performed by addressing their degradation in a commercial plate-and-frame cell equipped with a Nb-BDD anode. Cell is arranged within an electrochemical pilot plant designed for treating wastewaters by electrochemical Fenton-like processes, thus an efficient electrocatalytic production of H2O2 is necessary to guarantee Fenton's reaction. Significant decrease in H2O2 electrogeneration occurred during pilot plant operation, hindering the efficient performance of Fenton-like processes. Two cathodes were studied, first was operated at pH 3 and second at neutral pH by using EDDS as complexing agent to maintain iron in solution. Electrogenerated H2O2 decreased from 43 mg L-1 to 16 mg L-1 in the first cathode after 50 h of operation and from 49 mg L-1 to 24 mg L-1 in the second one after 26 h of operation. Both were cleaned with 30% (v/v) solution of HCl/water for 24 h and H2O2 production was recovered only in the second cathode (able to generate 39 mg L-1). Autopsy of the cathodes was tackled by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray energy dispersive (EDX), evidencing a strong degradation of first cathode surface and iron oxide inlays in second one due to the decomposition of Fe3+:EDDS and consequent iron precipitation at neutral pH.

Electro-oxidation process assisted by solar energy for the treatment of wastewater with high salinity.

Industrial wastewaters characterized by its high content in organics and conductivity entails a challenge for conventional treatments due to its low biodegradability. Electro-oxidative processes have been successfully applied for the treatment of this kind of wastewaters achieving high organics and ammonia removal. The degradation process is executed mainly by electrochemically generated active chlorine species, as HClO and ClO- with E0 = 1.49 V; and E0 = 0.89 V, respectively. Under solar radiation, specifically at 313 nm, the formation of Cl (E0 = 2.4 V) from ClO- is promoted, improving the oxidizing capacity of the process. In this work the combination of an electrochemical device with a solar photo-reactor has been evaluated aiming to increase the degradation rate per kWh-1. Two different complex industrial wastewaters were tested, achieving higher organics degradation when electrochemical treatment was assisted by solar light. Toxicity reduction was also assessed and biodegradability enhanced and allowing its ulterior lower-cost biological treatment.

Fermented cereal beverages: from probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic towards Nanoscience designed healthy drinks.

The consumption of fermented foods by human kind goes a long way back in history and there are as many types of fermented food as civilizations. Food Science and Technology has progressed from designing nutritional foods towards food with health improvement characteristics such as functional foods. In this sense, the area of food with properties to improve gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics has been the most important segment within functional foods. Most of these products are dairy-based so the development of nondairy gut improvement products has been of great interest for the food industry, resulting in the rise of cereal-based probiotic and synbiotic products. Finally, through Nanoscience and the application of Nanotechnology techniques in the food sector, it has been possible to design fermented beverages with synbiotic properties, and the incorporation of nanoparticles with unique and specific bioactivity, which has opened a new horizon in this segment of food created to improve human health and well-being. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: There is currently a great interest in producing healthy food in particular that which has an impact in improving the gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics. Most of these functional foods are dairy based and have been greatly accepted worldwide. Nevertheless, there has been a need for the development of nondairy probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic products. This has encouraged food scientists to study the feasibility of applying other fermenting substrates such as cereals for the development of innovative nondairy fermented functional foods. Therefore, in this review we have addressed the significance of applying cereals and their fractions for the development of probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic beverages. Furthermore, we have presented the importance of including nanoscience and nanotechnology techniques for the creation of fermented cereal beverages that contain specific bioactive nanoparticles. Thus, this work provides the guidelines to promote the development of novel nano-designed fermented cereal beverages that could significantly have an impact on the health of the consumers.

Fermentation adaptability of three probiotic Lactobacillus strains to oat, germinated oat and malted oat substrates.

Functional foods targeting the improvement of gastrointestinal health are widely recognized; of these, dairy-based probiotics are the most popular. Thus, the design of nondairy probiotics applying fruits, vegetables and cereals has raised great interest in the healthy food sector. The objective of this work was to assess the potential of germinated and malted oat substrates to support the growth of the probiotic cultures Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei and Lactobacillus rhamnosus. Fermentations were carried out with distinctive oat substrates at inoculum levels of 3, 5 and 7% v/v, substrate concentrations of 3, 5 and 7% w/v and with sucrose addition 1·5% w/v. Lag phase profiles, maximum growth rates and maximal growths were evaluated; protein and sugar contents were also quantified. There was no significant effect (P > 0·05) of the inoculum size on the fermentation kinetics; however, oat media significantly affected the growth kinetics. In simple oat media, Lact. acidophilus exhibited biphasic growth patterns. Lactobacillus growth patterns were significantly affected (P < 0·05) by the supplementation with protein sources. The germination and malting processes significantly improved oats nutrient characteristics demonstrating to be adequate substrates for the fermentation with probiotic lactobacilli. Significance and impact of the study: In this work, the effect of oat media composition and fermentation conditions on the growth kinetics of three probiotic lactobacilli was determined. The variation in the inoculum levels did not have a significant effect on the probiotic cultures growth. Results revealed that protein supplemented simple, germinated and malted oat enhanced the cell viability of the probiotic lactobacilli; Lactobacillus casei exhibited better growth adaptability. The results also highlight that different weight in volume oat substrate concentrations has particular effects on Lact. casei growth kinetics. Our results contribute to a better understanding of oat-based media formulations as substrates for probiotic cultures.

Granulomatous epididymo-orchitis: sonographic features and clinical outcome in brucellosis, tuberculosis and idiopathic granulomatous epididymo-orchitis.

PURPOSE: We reviewed and analyzed sonographic findings in granulomatous epididymo-orchitis in an attempt to differentiate this rare inflammatory entity from other causes of enlarged scrotum, such as tumors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed sonographic features of 9 patients a mean of 41 years old with specific and nonspecific granulomatous epididymo-orchitis, including brucellosis in 7, tuberculosis in 1 and idiopathic granulomatous epididymo-orchitis in 1. Histological confirmation was obtained in 3 cases, and in the remaining 6 positive clinical manifestations and laboratory tests for brucellosis were accepted as the main criteria for the diagnosis of brucellar epididymo-orchitis. RESULTS: The most notable echographic finding was an enlarged and heterogeneous epididymis, predominantly in the body and tail. Testicular involvement consisted of a diffusely hypoechoic testis or focal intratesticular areas. Thickening of the scrotal wall and tunica albuginea, and moderate hydrocele were also noted occasionally. Followup scans revealed intratesticular abscesses in 3 patients. CONCLUSIONS: These echographic findings may suggest the diagnosis of granulomatous epididymo-orchitis in the appropriate clinical setting, and help to avoid unnecessary orchiectomy for benign disease.

Diminished T lymphocyte proliferative response to polyclonal mitogens in acute brucellosis patients.

T lymphocytes from 21 untreated patients with acute brucellosis were tested for their proliferative response to polyclonal mitogens. The purified T lymphocytes from these patients showed a defective proliferative response to plant lectins and anti CD3 monoclonal antibodies with respect to the response observed in T lymphocytes from 21 healthy controls (p < 0.05). This defective proliferative response was not corrected by the exogenous addition of interleukin-2 or tumor necrosis factors alpha or beta to the culture medium. After antibiotic therapy, the proliferative response to the mitogens in T lymphocytes was found to be similar to that of the healthy controls (p > 0.05), and significantly higher than that found before treatment (p < 0.05). It was concluded that T lymphocytes from acute brucellosis patients have a defective proliferative response to membrane mitogenic signals, which disappears when the patients are cured after antibiotic treatment.

Defective interferon-gamma production by T-lymphocytes from patients with acute brucellosis.

The authors investigated the production of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) by phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)-stimulated T-lymphocytes from 21 untreated patients with acute brucellosis. PHA-stimulated T-lymphocytes from acute brucellosis patients showed normal IL-2 production but defective IFN-gamma production (brucellosis patients 531 +/- 103 pg mL-1 vs. healthy controls 1024 +/- 212 pg mL-1) after 72 h of culture. This altered pattern of IL-2 and IFN-gamma production by T-lymphocytes was observed in seven brucellosis patients whose T-lymphocytes exhibited a normal proliferative response to PHA (61 612 +/- 18 422 cpm) as well as in the 14 patients with a defective T-lymphocyte proliferative response to the PHA after 5 days of culture (19 479 +/- 4409 cpm). After antibiotic therapy, production of the two lymphokines by the PHA-stimulated T-lymphocytes from acute brucellosis patients was similar to that of T-lymphocytes from healthy control subjects. The authors conclude that PHA-stimulated T-lymphocytes from untreated patients with acute brucellosis have defective INF-gamma production but normal IL-2 production.

Impaired activity of natural killer cells in patients with acute brucellosis.

Researchers have claimed that natural killer (NK) cells are involved in the mechanisms of defense of the host against infections. We have investigated the activity of NK cells in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNC) from 12 patients for whom acute brucellar infection has been diagnosed and from 14 healthy controls. The sera of eight of the patients were also analyzed 3 months after initiation of a 45-day course of antibiotic treatment, at which time they had no evidence of relapse. PBMNC from patients with acute brucellar infection showed a significantly depressed NK cell activity (P < .01) when compared with those from healthy controls; this depressed activity was not related to a deficient number of NK cells since the numbers of CD56+ and CD16+ cells present in PBMNC were similar in patients and controls. Incubation of PBMNC from patients with acute brucellar infection with recombinant interleukin-2, but not with interferon-gamma, can correct this impaired cytotoxic activity. In treated patients, there was a significant enhancement (P < .05) and normalization of the previously defective NK cell activity. It is concluded that acute brucellar infection is associated with a deficient cytotoxic activity of NK cells that can be overcome by in vitro incubation with interleukin-2 and that reverts to normal after antibiotic treatment.

Pregnancy is associated with a reduction in the pattern of the cytotoxic activity displayed by lymphokine-activated killer cells.

Several modifications in the homeostasis of the maternal immune system have been implicated in the survival of the fetoplacental graft. We have investigated the adaptive response of the cytotoxic nonmajor histocompatibility complex (MHC)-restricted effector lymphocytes in pregnancy, and have found that the spontaneous lytic activity against both natural killer (NK)-sensitive and NK-resistant target cells is either decreased or lacking in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNC) from pregnant women. Recombinant interleukin-2 (rIL-2) normalizes the cytotoxic activity of PBMNC from pregnant women against NK-sensitive target cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, without modification in the normal amounts of HNK-1+, CD16+ (Leu 11, or CD11b+ (OKM-1) present in these effector populations. However, the pattern of lytic activity against NK-resistant target cells found in PBMNC from pregnant women after short- and long-term incubation with rIL-2 was reduced in comparison with that observed in PBMNC from nongravid women in similar conditions. Moreover, rIL-2 incubation of PBMNC from pregnant subjects was not associated with an enhancement of the lytic binding against NK-resistant target cells. These findings demonstrate that pregnancy is not only associated with a reduction in the NK lytic activity of PBMNC, but also with a reduction in the generation of lymphokine-activated killer activity, in terms of the pattern of lytic activity developed.

Keyhole limpet hemocyanine can enhance the natural killer activity of patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder.

It has been shown that natural killer (NK) cells are involved in the immunosurveillance of tumors. In patients with transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) of the bladder, there is a negative correlation between the levels of NK activity in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNCs) and both the clinical evolution and the pathological stages of the disease. We have investigated the immunoregulatory effect of keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) on the NK activity of patients with TCC of the bladder. We found that KLH enhances the cytotoxic activity of PBMNC from patients with superficial TCC against NK-sensitive target cells in a time-dependent manner. This KLH-enhanced cytotoxicity is not directed against NK-resistant target cells. However, KLH fails to normalize the depressed NK activity of PBMNCs from patients with infiltrative TCC. The present in vitro studies suggest that this immunoregulatory effect of KLH on NK cytotoxicity may be implicated in its therapeutic effect on superficial TCC of the bladder.

[Immunobiology of materno-fetal relations]. / Inmunobiología de las relaciones materno-fetales.

Normal development of pregnancy requires maternal immune system tolerance towards the fetoplacental allograft. Natural Killer (NK) cells can display spontaneous lytic activity against tumoral, and poorly differentiated cells, without a prior sensitization. Moreover this cytotoxic activity is not restricted by the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC). We investigated the existence of modifications in the NK activity mediated by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from pregnant women. A significant depression was found in this activity from the first trimester to the puerperium that cannot be ascribed to a defective number of NK cells among pregnant's PBMC. However this impaired NK activity can be reconstituted in vitro by incubation of PBMC with interleukin 2 (IL 2). Pregnancy is also associated with an absence of effectors and/or precursors which mediate other cytotoxic non MHC-restricted activities after long term incubation with IL 2, the so called Lymphokine Activated Killer (LAK) cells.