Inhibiting Metal Oxide Atomic Layer Deposition: Beyond Zinc Oxide.

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) of several metal oxides is selectivity inhibited on alkanethiol self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) on Au, and the eventual nucleation mechanism is investigated. The inhibition ability of the SAM is significantly improved by the in situ H2-plasma pretreatment of the Au substrate prior to the gas-phase deposition of a long-chain alkanethiol, 1-dodecanethiol (DDT). This more rigorous surface preparation inhibits even aggressive oxide ALD precursors, including trimethylaluminum and water, for at least 20 cycles. We study the effect that the ALD precursor purge times, growth temperature, alkanethiol chain length, alkanethiol deposition time, and plasma treatment time have on Al2O3 ALD inhibition. This is the first example of Al2O3 ALD inhibition from a vapor-deposited SAM. The inhibitions of Al2O3, ZnO, and MnO ALD processes are compared, revealing the versatility of this selective surface treatment. Atomic force microscopy and grazing-incidence X-ray fluorescence further reveal insight into the mechanism by which the well-defined surface chemistry of ALD may eventually be circumvented to allow metal oxide nucleation and growth on SAM-modified surfaces.

Electrochemical Properties and CO2-Reduction Ability of m-Terphenyl Isocyanide Supported Manganese Tricarbonyl Complexes.

To circumvent complications with redox-active ligands commonly encountered in the study of manganese electrocatalysts for CO2 reduction, we have studied the electrochemistry of the manganese mixed carbonyl/isocyanide complexes XMn(CO)3(CNArDipp2)2 (X = counteranion), to evaluate the pairing effects of the counteranion and their influence over the potential necessary for metal-based reduction. The complexes described herein have been shown to act as functional analogues to the known homoleptic carbonyl manganese complexes [Mn(CO)5]n (n = 1-, 0, 1+). The m-terphenyl isocyanide ligand CNArDipp2 improves the kinetic stability of the resulting mixed carbonyl/isocyanide systems, such that conversion among all three oxidation states is easily effected by chemical reagents. Here, we have utilized an electrochemical study to fully understand the redox chemistry of this system and its ability to facilitate CO2 reduction and to provide comparison to known manganese-based CO2 electrocatalysts. Two complexes, BrMn(CO)3(CNArDipp2)2 and [Mn(THF)(CO)3(CNArDipp2)2]OTf, have been studied using infrared spectroelectrochemistry (IR-SEC) to spectroscopically characterize the redox states of these complexes during the course of electrochemical reactions. A striking difference in the necessary potential leading to the first one-electron reduction has been found for the halide and triflate species, respectively. Complete selectivity for the formation of CO and CO32- is observed in the reactivity of [Mn(CO)3(CNArDipp2)2]- with CO2, which is deduced via the trapping and incorporation of liberated CO into the zerovalent species Mn(CO)3(CNArDipp2)2 to form the dimers Mn2(CO)7(CNArDipp2)3 and Mn2(CO)8(CNArDipp2)2.

Manganese Electrocatalysts with Bulky Bipyridine Ligands: Utilizing Lewis Acids To Promote Carbon Dioxide Reduction at Low Overpotentials.

Earth-abundant manganese bipyridine (bpy) complexes are well-established molecular electrocatalysts for proton-coupled carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction to carbon monoxide (CO). Recently, a bulky bipyridine ligand, 6,6'-dimesityl-2,2'-bipyridine (mesbpy), was utilized to significantly lower the potential necessary to access the doubly reduced states of these manganese catalysts by eliminating their ability to dimerize after one-electron reduction. Although this Mn mesbpy catalyst binds CO2 at very low potentials, reduction of a resulting Mn(I)-COOH complex at significantly more negative potentials is required to achieve fast catalytic rates. Without reduction of Mn(I)-COOH, catalysis occurs slowly via a alternate catalytic pathway-protonation of Mn(I)-COOH to form a cationic tetracarbonyl complex. We report the use of Lewis acids, specifically Mg(2+) cations, to significantly increase the rate of catalysis (by over 10-fold) at these low overpotentials (i.e., the same potential as CO2 binding). Reduction of CO2 occurs at one of the lowest overpotentials ever reported for molecular electrocatalysts (η = 0.3-0.45 V). With Mg(2+), catalysis proceeds via a reductive disproportionation reaction of 2CO2 + 2e(-) → CO and CO3(2-). Insights into the catalytic mechanism were gained by using variable concentration cyclic voltammetry, infrared spectroelectrochemistry, and bulk electrolysis studies. The catalytic Tafel behavior (log turnover frequency vs overpotential relationship) of [Mn(mesbpy)(CO)3(MeCN)](OTf) with added Mg(2+) is compared with those of other commonly studied CO2 reduction catalysts.

A porous proton-relaying metal-organic framework material that accelerates electrochemical hydrogen evolution.

The availability of efficient hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) catalysts is of high importance for solar fuel technologies aimed at reducing future carbon emissions. Even though Pt electrodes are excellent HER electrocatalysts, commercialization of large-scale hydrogen production technology requires finding an equally efficient, low-cost, earth-abundant alternative. Here, high porosity, metal-organic framework (MOF) films have been used as scaffolds for the deposition of a Ni-S electrocatalyst. Compared with an MOF-free Ni-S, the resulting hybrid materials exhibit significantly enhanced performance for HER from aqueous acid, decreasing the kinetic overpotential by more than 200 mV at a benchmark current density of 10 mA cm(-2). Although the initial aim was to improve electrocatalytic activity by greatly boosting the active area of the Ni-S catalyst, the performance enhancements instead were found to arise primarily from the ability of the proton-conductive MOF to favourably modify the immediate chemical environment of the sulfide-based catalyst.

Electrocatalytic Dihydrogen Production by an Earth-Abundant Manganese Bipyridine Catalyst.

Earth-abundant manganese bipyridine complexes have been extensively studied as homogeneous electrocatalysts for proton-coupled CO2 reduction. To date, these manganese complexes have not been examined as catalysts for the reduction of other small molecules. We report electrocatalytic H2 production by [Mn(mesbpy)(CO)3(MeCN)](OTf)]. In acetonitrile, this manganese electrocatalyst displays a turnover frequency (TOF) of 5500 s(-1) at an overpotential of 0.90 V (at Ecat/2) for the reduction of protons to H2 using trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) as the acid source. These findings show the flexibility of these manganese bipyridine complexes to serve as catalysts for a variety of small molecule reductions.

Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction to Formate Using a Mn(I) Molecular Catalyst in a Robust Metal-Organic Framework.

A manganese bipyridine complex, Mn(bpydc)(CO)3Br (bpydc = 5,5'-dicarboxylate-2,2'-bipyridine), has been incorporated into a highly robust Zr(IV)-based metal-organic framework (MOF) for use as a CO2 reduction photocatalyst. In conjunction with [Ru(dmb)3](2+) (dmb = 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine) as a photosensitizer and 1-benzyl-1,4-dihydronicotinamide (BNAH) as a sacrificial reductant, Mn-incorporated MOFs efficiently catalyze CO2 reduction to formate in DMF/triethanolamine under visible-light irradiation. The photochemical performance of the Mn-incorporated MOF reached a turnover number of approximately 110 in 18 h, exceeding that of the homogeneous reference systems. The increased activity of the MOF-incorporated Mn catalyst is ascribed to the struts of the framework providing isolated active sites, which stabilize the catalyst and inhibit dimerization of the singly reduced Mn complex. The MOF catalyst largely retained its crystallinity throughout prolonged catalysis and was successfully reused over several catalytic runs.

A Molecular Ruthenium Electrocatalyst for the Reduction of Carbon Dioxide to CO and Formate.

The use of a bulky bipyridine ligand, 6,6'-dimesityl-2,2'-bipyridine (mesbpy), to enable the reduction of carbon dioxide by a Ru-based molecular electrocatalyst is reported. Under catalytic conditions, this compound exhibits turnover frequencies of 320 s(-1) and 95% Faradaic efficiency for the production of CO and H2O from CO2 in the presence of Brønsted acids [corrected]. Mechanistic electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical studies, supplemented by the direct synthesis of relevant intermediates, indicate that this behavior is the result of the cooperative redox response of the bipyridine ligand and Ru metal center at negative potentials, as well as the inhibition of Ru-Ru bond formation through steric interactions.

Synthesis and structural studies of nickel(0) Tetracarbene complexes with the introduction of a new four-coordinate geometric index, τδ.

The synthesis and characterization of two homoleptic chelating nickel(0) tetracarbene complexes are reported. These are the first group 10 M(0) (M = Ni, Pd, Pt) tetracarbene complexes. These species have geometries intermediate between C2v sawhorse and tetrahedral and show high UV-vis absorption in the 350-600 nm range, with extinction coefficients (ϵ) between 5600 and 9400 M(-1) cm(-1). Density functional theory analysis indicates that this high absorptivity is due to metal-to-ligand charge transfer. In order to better describe the unusual geometries encountered in these complexes, an adjustment to the popular τ4 index for four-coordinate geometries is introduced in order to better delineate between sawhorse and distorted tetrahedral geometries.

Mechanistic contrasts between manganese and rhenium bipyridine electrocatalysts for the reduction of carbon dioxide.

[Re(bpy)(CO)3](-) is a well-established homogeneous electrocatalyst for the reduction of CO2 to CO. Recently, substitution of the more abundant transition metal Mn for Re yielded a similarly active electrocatalyst, [Mn(bpy)(CO)3](-). Compared to the Re catalyst, this Mn catalyst operates at a lower applied reduction potential but requires the presence of a weak acid in the solution for catalytic activity. In this study, we employ quantum chemistry combined with continuum solvation and microkinetics to examine the mechanism of CO2 reduction by each catalyst. We use cyclic voltammetry experiments to determine the turnover frequencies of the Mn catalyst with phenol as the added weak acid. The computed turnover frequencies for both catalysts agree to within one order of magnitude of the experimental ones. The different operating potentials for these catalysts indicate that different reduction pathways may be favored during catalysis. We model two different pathways for both catalysts and find that, at their respective operating potentials, the Mn catalyst indeed is predicted to take a different reaction route than the Re catalyst. The Mn catalyst can access both catalytic pathways, depending on the applied potential, while the Re catalyst does not show this flexibility. Our microkinetics analysis predicts which intermediates should be observable during catalysis. These intermediates for the two catalyzed reactions have qualitatively different electronic configurations, depending on the applied potential. The observable intermediate at higher applied potentials possesses an unpaired electron and therefore should be EPR-active; however, the observable intermediate at lower applied potentials, accessible only for the Mn catalyst, is diamagnetic and therefore should be EPR-silent. The differences between both catalysts are rationalized on the basis of their electronic structure and different ligand binding affinities.

Manganese catalysts with bulky bipyridine ligands for the electrocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide: eliminating dimerization and altering catalysis.

With the goal of improving previously reported Mn bipyridine electrocatalysts in terms of increased activity and reduced overpotential, a bulky bipyridine ligand, 6,6'-dimesityl-2,2'-bipyridine (mesbpy), was utilized to eliminate dimerization in the catalytic cycle. Synthesis, electrocatalytic properties, X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies, and infrared spectroelectrochemistry (IR-SEC) of Mn(mesbpy)(CO)3Br and [Mn(mesbpy)(CO)3(MeCN)](OTf) are reported. Unlike previously reported Mn bipyridine catalysts, these Mn complexes exhibit a single, two-electron reduction wave under nitrogen, with no evidence of dimerization. The anionic complex, [Mn(mesbpy)(CO)3](-), is formed at 300 mV more positive potential than the corresponding state is formed in typical Mn bipyridine catalysts. IR-SEC experiments and chemical reductions with KC8 provide insights into the species leading up to the anionic state, specifically that both the singly reduced and doubly reduced Mn complexes form at the same potential. When formed, the anionic complex binds CO2 with H(+), but catalytic activity does not occur until a ~400 mV more negative potential is present. The Mn complexes show high activity and Faradaic efficiency for CO2 reduction to CO with the addition of weak Brønsted acids. IR-SEC experiments under CO2/H(+) indicate that reduction of a Mn(I)-CO2H catalytic intermediate may be the cause of this unusual "over-reduction" required to initiate catalysis.

Carbon monoxide release catalysed by electron transfer: electrochemical and spectroscopic investigations of [Re(bpy-R)(CO)4](OTf) complexes relevant to CO2 reduction.

[Re(bpy-tBu)(CO)4](OTf) (bpy-tBu = 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-2,2'-bipyridine, OTf = trifluoromethanesulfonate) (1) and [Re(bpy)(CO)4](OTf) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine) (2) were synthesized and studied as proposed intermediates in the electrocatalytic reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) by Re(bpy-R)(CO)3X. Both compounds demonstrated increased current responses in cyclic voltammograms under CO2. Complex 1 was also characterized by X-ray crystallography. Infrared-spectroelectrochemistry (IR-SEC) of 1 and 2 indicated that upon exposure of the cationic tetracarbonyl compounds to a reducing potential, a CO ligand is labilised and [Re(bpy-R)(CO)3(CH3CN)](+) species are formed. This is proposed to occur via an electron-transfer-catalysed process wherein a catalytic amount of reduced species propagates a ligand exchange reaction. Addition of a catalytic amount of potassium intercalated graphite (KC8), a chemical reductant, to a solution of 1 or 2 also yielded quantitative formation of [Re(bpy-R)(CO)3(CH3CN)](+), which indicates that the CO loss is catalysed by electron transfer, and not the electrode itself.

Manganese as a substitute for rhenium in CO2 reduction catalysts: the importance of acids.

Electrocatalytic properties, X-ray crystallographic studies, and infrared spectroelectrochemistry (IR-SEC) of Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3Br and [Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3(MeCN)](OTf) are reported. Addition of Brönsted acids to CO2-saturated solutions of these Mn complexes and subsequent reduction of the complexes lead to the stable and efficient production of CO from CO2. Unlike the analogous Re catalysts, these Mn catalysts require the addition of Brönsted acids for catalytic turnover. Current densities up to 30 mA/cm(2) were observed during bulk electrolysis using 5 mM Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3Br, 1 M 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol, and a glassy carbon working electrode. During bulk electrolysis at -2.2 V vs SCE, a TOF of 340 s(-1) was calculated for Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3Br with 1.4 M trifluoroethanol, corresponding to a Faradaic efficiency of 100 ± 15% for the formation of CO from CO2, with no observable production of H2. When compared to the analogous Re catalysts, the Mn catalysts operate at a lower overpotential and exhibit similar catalytic activities. X-ray crystallography of the reduced species, [Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3](-), shows a five-coordinate Mn center, similar to its rhenium analogue. Three distinct species were observed in the IR-SEC of Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3Br. These were of the parent Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3Br complex, the dimer [Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3]2, and the [Mn(bpy-tBu)(CO)3](-) anion.