Co-circulation of multiple genotypes of African swine fever viruses among domestic pigs in Zambia (2013-2015).

During 2013-2015, several and severe outbreaks of African swine fever (ASF) affected domestic pigs in six provinces of Zambia. Genetic characterization of ASF viruses (ASFVs) using standardized genotyping procedures revealed that genotypes I, II and XIV were associated with these outbreaks. Molecular and epidemiological data suggest that genotype II ASFV (Georgia 2007/1-like) detected in Northern Province of Zambia may have been introduced from neighbouring Tanzania. Also, a genotype II virus detected in Eastern Province of Zambia showed a p54 phylogenetic relationship that was inconsistent with that of p72, underscoring the genetic variability of ASFVs. While it appears genotype II viruses detected in Zambia arose from a domestic pig cycle, genotypes I and XIV possibly emerged from a sylvatic cycle. Overall, this study demonstrates the co-circulation of multiple genotypes of ASFVs, involvement of both the sylvatic and domestic pig cycle in ASF outbreaks in Zambia and possible trans-boundary spread of the disease in south-eastern Africa. Indeed, while there is need for regional or international concerted efforts in the control of ASF, understanding pig marketing practices, pig population dynamics, pig housing and rearing systems and community engagement will be important considerations when designing future prevention and control strategies of this disease in Zambia.

Environmental and climatic factors associated with epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) in fish from the Zambezi floodplains, Zambia.

This study was conducted to determine environmental and climatic factors associated with Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) in fish in the Zambezi floodplains. EUS is a fish disease that causes economic loses to the fishing industry. Streambed colour in affected water was rusty-, reddish- or yellowish- brown and pH 4.5-6.0 while pH of non affected water was 7.2. The rusty-brown precipitate on fish gills was positive for Prussian blue iron stain. Therefore, predisposing factors for EUS in the Zambezi floodplains were the acidification of ground water during drought years and eventual contamination of surface water during the floods of 2006/2007.

Mortality and commercial off-take rates in adult traditional cattle of Zambia.

A cohort study was conducted in the livestock-wildlife interface areas of Zambia to determine cattle mortality and commercial off-take rates among adult cattle as well as factors influencing them. A total of 416 animals from 43 herds were followed up for one year and animals were individually identified and their fate was indicated as sold, slaughtered, dead or present as appropriate. The overall mortality incidence risk was estimated at 7.5%. Cattle in Kazungula were at a greater risk of dying compared to those in Blue Lagoon and Lochnivar. Annual off-take was estimated at 13.7% (8.1-19.3%), unadjusted values, and 16.4% (8.1-24.5%) after adjusting for sampling fraction in primary sampling units (herds) and area stratification. Area variations were observed with Kazungula recording the highest in both instances, which was attributed to a contagious bovine pleural pneumonia (CBPP) outbreak. Herd size and gender were observed to influence cattle mortality rates. Cattle in the middle-sized herds (50-150 cattle) recorded high mortality rates (OR = 3.91) compared to smaller herds (10-50) and so were females compared to males (OR = 4.16). The logistic regression model showed that cattle death was influenced by managerial factors and that off-take rates tend to increase in the face of disease outbreaks.

Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis and animal level risk factors for indigenous cattle under different grazing strategies in the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Zambia.

A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate the prevalence and animal level risk factors for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in indigenous cattle of the livestock/wildlife interface areas in Zambia. A total of 944 cattle from 111 herds were investigated. The comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CIDT) was used to identify reactor animals for BTB. Animal level data on sex, age, parity and body condition score were registered. The overall animal prevalence of BTB as determined by the CIDT was 6.8% (95% CI: 4.2, 9.5%). In Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon areas, animal level prevalence were observed at 5.2% (95% CI: 2.2, 8.2%) and 9.6% (95% CI: 6.1, 13.2%), respectively. Kazungula, an area outside the livestock/wildlife interface, had a prevalence of only 0.8% (95% CI: 0.0, 2.3%). The age of the animal, its body condition score and the type of management system, were predictive of its BTB status. The study revealed that BTB was relatively high in the livestock/wildlife interface areas of Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon compared to Kazungula. These findings should raise a serious public health concern considering the extent to which the communities of the study areas are in contact with their animals and the levels at which they use untreated milk.

Risk factors associated with bovine tuberculosis in traditional cattle of the livestock/wildlife interface areas in the Kafue basin of Zambia.

We conducted a cross-sectional study from August 2003 to February 2004 to identify risk factors for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in the Kafue basin of Zambia. We investigated a total of 106 herds of cattle for presence of BTB using the comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CITT) while an interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to gather epidemiological data on herd structure, management and grazing strategies. BTB prevalence at herd level was estimated and possible risk factors were investigated using the multiple logistic regression model. The true herd level prevalence of BTB was estimated at 49.8% (95% CI: 37.9, 61.7%). The logistic regression model showed that cattle herd BTB status was highly associated with area and husbandry practices. When compared to Kazungula, cattle herds in Blue Lagoon were more likely to test positive for BTB when other factors such as management practices were controlled (OR=10.5). In terms of grazing strategies, transhumant herds (TH) had higher odds (OR=3.0) of being positive compared to sedentary herds (OR=1.0). The results in this study provide preliminary information about potential risk factors that were found to be associated with BTB status in cattle.

Evaluation of three serological tests for brucellosis in naturally infected cattle using latent class analysis.

Serological methods are traditionally used in diagnosis of brucellosis. However, the comparative performance of these tests and their accuracy under the local environment in Zambia has not been assessed. Thus, the objective of our study was to evaluate the diagnostic performance of three serological tests for brucellosis; Rose Bengal Test (RBT), competitive ELISA (c-ELISA) and Fluorescence Polarisation Assay (FPA) in naturally infected cattle in Zambia without an appropriate reference test to classify animals into truly infected and non-infected. Serological test results from a study to determine sero-prevalence were used to compare the performance of RBT, c-ELISA and FPA in diagnosing brucellosis in traditional cattle. Since none of the tests can be seen as a perfect reference test or gold standard, their performance in a population of naturally infected cattle was evaluated using latent class analysis which allows the sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) to be estimated in the absence of a gold standard. The highest Se was achieved by the c-ELISA (97%; Credible Posterior Interval (CPI)=93-100%) and the highest Sp by the FPA (93%; CPI=85-99%), conversely these tests also had the lowest Sp and Se, respectively, with the RBT performing well in both the Se (93%; CPI=84-98%) and Sp (81%; CPI=61-97).

Risk factors for brucellosis in indigenous cattle reared in livestock-wildlife interface areas of Zambia.

We conducted this cross-sectional study to investigate risk factors of Brucella seropositivity in cattle herds reared in livestock-wildlife interface areas of Blue Lagoon and Lochinvar National Parks in Zambia between August 2003 and September 2004. Sera were collected from cattle aged > or =2 years from 124 herds. Data on husbandry practices, grazing strategies, and herd structure (sex and age composition) were also collected. Sera were screened for anti-Brucella antibodies using the Rose Bengal test (RBT) as a presumptive test and a competitive-ELISA (c-ELISA) as a confirmatory test. A herd was classified as Brucella seropositive if at least one animal tested positive on both RBT and c-ELISA in series testing. Risk factors for herd-level brucellosis seropositivity were tested using multivariable logistic regression; risk factors for increases in the within-herd counts of seropositive cattle were analyzed using the negative binomial regression model with the number of seropositive animals as outcome and total number of cattle tested in a herd as the population at risk (exposure). Of the 110 herds tested, 68 (62; 95% CI: 53, 71% after adjusting for clustering by area) tested seropositive for exposure to Brucella spp. The final logistic-regression model identified geographical area, with Lochinvar (OR=3.4; CI: 0.97, 12) and Kazungula (OR=4.3; CI: 0.91, 20) recording higher odds of Brucella infections compared to Blue Lagoon. Herds coming in contact with wildlife had higher odds compared to those without contact (OR=3.4; CI: 1, 11). Similarly, the odds of Brucella infection were progressively higher in the larger herd categories (26-40 cattle, OR=2.6; CI: 0.70, 10; 41-82 cattle, OR=4.9; CI: 0.93, 26; >82 cattle, OR=9.4; CI: 1.7-51) compared to the smallest herd category (10-25). The negative binomial regression model identified geographical area, contact with wildlife, and herd size as having significant effect on counts of seropositive cattle in a herd.

The role of Brucella infection in abortions among traditional cattle reared in proximity to wildlife on the Kafue flats of Zambia.

The role of Brucella infections in cattle abortions was investigated in 914 females from 124 herds. Animals were tested for exposure to Brucella species and history of abortion over the past three years. Sera were tested using the Rose Bengal test (RBT) and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA). Of 886 females tested, 189 were positive on RBT, and 154 (81.5%) were confirmed by c-ELISA. At the individual animal level, 16.2% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 12.6% to 19.8%) of the cows had aborted their foetuses in the last three years, while Brucella seroprevalence was estimated at 23.9% (95% CI: 19.8% to 28.0%), after adjusting for area clustering and weighting according to sampling fraction. At the herd level, abortions were recorded in 50% of the herds (95% CI: 41.2% to 58.8%) and the seroprevalence was 58.1% (95% CI: 49.5% to 66.6%). A multiple logistic regression model identified the presence of anti-Brucella antibodies (odds ratio = 3.4; 95% CI: 1.6 to 7.4) and age as having significant effects on the risk of cattle abortion but no distinct factors could be identified at herd level. These results establish that Brucella infections contribute significantly to cattle abortions in the traditional livestock sector of Zambia.

Prevalence of antibodies to Brucella spp. and individual risk factors of infection in traditional cattle, goats and sheep reared in livestock-wildlife interface areas of Zambia.

A cross-sectional study was performed in the livestock-wildlife interface areas of Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National Parks and the non-interface area of Kazungula to determine the prevalence of antibodies to Brucella spp. in domestic ruminants and identify individual animal risk factors of infection. A total of 1245 cattle from 124 herds and 280 goats and sheep from 29 flocks were tested sequentially for Brucella antibodies using the Rose Bengal test (RBT) and competitive ELISA. In cattle, individual seroprevalence ranged from 14.1% to 28.1%, while herd sero-prevalence ranged from 46.2% to 74.0% in the three study areas. No goat or sheep tested positive for Brucella antibodies. Three types of cattle grazing strategies were encountered: locally grazed herds (LGH), transhumantly grazed herds (TGH) and river flood plain grazed herds (FGH). Brucella seroprevalence was seen to vary according to area and grazing strategy: Lochinvar and transhumant grazed herds recorded the highest figures, respectively. Age, sex and history of abortion were found to have independent effects on individual seroprevalence. This study establishes that brucellosis is endemic in domestic animals in the livestock-wildlife interface areas of Blue Lagoon and Lochinvar national parks and the disease is also present in Kazungula. We observed that type of grazing strategy had significant impact on cattle Brucella seroprevalence and that transhumant herds were at high risk of being infected.

Some observations on the sero-prevalence of heartwater and tick infestation in Zambian goats.

A survey was carried out to define the distribution of heartwater in goats that originated from six districts in communal grazing semi-arid areas of Zambia. A total of 181 samples (40.1%) out of 451 serum samples from adult goats were positive for Ehrlichia ruminantium antibodies after screening using indirect MAP-1B antigen ELISA technique with statistically significant differences (P < 0.01) between the six districts. Out of 1 036 adult goats examined for tick infestation, 105 were infested by ticks, with Amblyomma species being the most dominant tick encountered. Amblyomma variegatum, which is the vector for heartwater transmission in Zambia constituted 42.4% of the tick species, identified. The overall tick infestation rate was 10% while the tick:goat ratio was 2.1:1. Amblyomma variegatum appears to be widespread throughout the study area, as are antibodies to E. ruminantium.

The prevalence of bovine herpesvirus-1 in traditional cattle in Southern Province, Zambia.

A study was conducted to determine the prevalence of bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), which causes infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, in cattle destined for market in Southern Province, Zambia. A total of 116 nasal secretion samples were tested using the direct fluorescent antibody test, while blood samples from the same cattle were examined by a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. The prevalence of the BHV-1 antigens in cattle was 23.28% (27/116), while the mean prevalence of the BHV-1 antibodies was 48.28% (56/116). This study showed that cattle in transit to markets could easily spread the virus, which was reactivated by the stress of trekking for long distances under unfavourable conditions, to the other cattle with which they came into contact. Thus, these transit cattle posed a serious threat to other bovines. Systems of cattle trading where cattle must be transported a long wayto market should be reviewed by the authorities to minimise the conditions that may exacerbate the spread of infection.

A survey of trypanosomosis in Zambian goats using haematocrit centrifuge technique and polymerase chain reaction.

The incidence of trypanosomosis was determined using the haematocrit centrifuge technique (HCT) as well as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on 120 goat blood spots on filter paper. Both techniques failed to detect a positive reaction, implying that factors such as age, healthy appearance and small sample size notwithstanding, trypanosomosis does not seem to pose a serious threat to goat health in the districts from where the animals originated.

Foot and mouth disease in Zambia: a review of the aetiology and epidemiology and recommendations for possible control.

In Zambia, foot and mouth disease (FMD) has been caused by all three of the South African Territories serotypes (SAT 1, 2 and 3) and by European types O and A. Three areas of the country which have experienced repeated occurrences of the disease are considered high-risk areas. The three areas are as follows: the southern border area between Zambia and Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia, the Kafue Flats and the northern border with Tanzania in the Nakonde and Mbala districts. The transfer mechanism of the virus is poorly understood but the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is considered to be the natural host, acting as a reservoir of infection for the SAT types of the virus. Cattle are known to be carriers of the virus for up to two and a half years and individual semi-domesticated buffalo have been reported to act as carriers for up to five years. In wild herds of buffalo, the virus has been recorded for periods of up to twenty-five years. Current control measures include mass vaccination of cattle in high-risk areas and restrictions on the movement of cattle from areas in which contact exists with buffalo. New protocols should be developed for the prevention and control of FMD, including the enforcement of livestock movement control, improved disease surveillance and reporting, and the monitoring of FMD virus in carrier cattle and buffalo. These measures will contribute towards building the confidence of the regulatory bodies of importing countries in the region.

Short report: prevalence of antibodies against spotted fever, murine typhus, and Q fever rickettsiae in humans living in Zambia.

The causative agents of rickettsial diseases (Rickettsia conorii, R. typhi, and Coxiella burnetii) have been reported throughout the African continent. However, there have been no reports on epidemiologic surveys of these infections in Zambia. This study was designed to clarify the prevalence of three rickettsioses in 377 humans in Zambia. The seroprevalence of antibodies against R. conorii, R. typhi, and C. burnetii was 16.7%, 5.0%, and 8.2%, respectively. The rates of antibody positivity against R. conorii and C. burnetii were higher in the eastern (23.1% and 11.8%) and western (16.8% and 7.4%) areas of Zambia than in the northern (3.0% and 3.0%) area of this country. There was little difference among the three areas in the distribution of antibodies against R. typhi. Since cattle breeding is more extensive in the western and eastern areas than in the northern area, it is thought that cattle-breeding areas are foci of R. conorii and C. burnetii infections in Zambia.

Distribution of Rift Valley fever among cattle in Zambia.

In the present study, 1,421 cattle in 32 herds within nine districts, which are important cattle-producing centers in the nine provinces of Zambia, were tested for Rift Valley fever by the indirect immunofluorescence assay. One hundred and forty-seven cattle (10.5%) in 28 herds (88.9%) in the nine districts tested were positive for Rift Valley fever implying a country-wide distribution. In districts associated with flood plains and/or "dambos" (low lying areas of perpetual flooding), high herd and individual positive rates (100% and > 10%, respectively) were found, suggesting a significance of these features in the distribution of the disease.

The nature of animal health economics in relation to veterinary epidemiology.

Animal health economics is being formally integrated into such institutions as sub-Saharan African universities and Veterinary Services. Unfortunately, the nature of the relationship between economics and epidemiology is not clearly understood. Economics has an extensive theoretical apparatus and an array of methods and techniques. Animal health economics has two interrelated branches: economics for the planning and management of animal health services and economic analysis of diseases and interventions. Epidemiology and economics, although separate scientific areas, are complementary when the goal is efficient management of animal health and associated delivery systems. In performing economic analyses, an "economic model' should determine data requirements (epidemiological and socioeconomic), as such analyses invariably require epidemiological inputs. The core concepts in economic analysis are as follows: conceptual models, opportunity cost of resources, marginal analysis and partial analysis. Important methods include statistical models, mathematical programming, budgets, cost minimisation, decision analysis, variants of cost-benefit analysis and simulation. Given the nature of animal health economics, veterinarians who want to practise as economists need a thorough training in economic principles and methods, in addition to training in basic epidemiology.

Viral diseases of livestock in Zambia.

This review is to provide information on viral diseases of livestock in Zambia. The distribution of the diseases as well as the control measures and limited research that has been done, are described. Foot and mouth disease (FMD) causes serious economic losses in the cattle industry. So far five serotypes (SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, O and At of FMD virus have been isolated in Zambia. Other notifiable viral diseases are rabies, Rift Valley fever, Lumpy skin disease, African horse sickness, bluetongue, African swine fever, Newcastle disease, Marek's disease, fowlpox and infectious bursal disease. Based on the reports of clinical and/or serological diagnoses, these are widespread in the country, although their precise incidence rates are not known. With the establishment of a veterinary school equipped with modern diagnostic facilities and the increasing number of qualified veterinary personnel, this review would stimulate surveillance study on the viral diseases for the ultimate goal of achieving effective disease control measures.

African swine fever in Zambia: potential financial and production consequences for the commercial sector.

The first officially recorded outbreak of African swine fever (ASF) in Zambia was in Eastern province in 1965. The disease now covers almost the whole province and is endemic in the indigenous breeds. In 1989, an outbreak of ASF occurred on a commercial property in central Zambia for the first time and was eradicated by depopulation. In order to examine the justification of the drastic control measures and the continued ban on the export of pigs and their products, the impact of the outbreak on the affected property as well as the potential consequences on the commercial pig sector in the district was assessed in the present study. The affected property lost 421,238 Zambian Kwacha (ZK) (USf439,965) as a result of the outbreak and control measures. However, the cost to the district could have been at least ZK14,917,500 (US$1,415,323) if the measures had not been effected. Furthermore, not taking such measures would have increased the risk to the entire commercial pig sector along the line of rail in urban centers.

Theileriosis in Zambia: etiology, epidemiology and control measures.

In Zambia, theileriosis manifests itself in the form of Corridor disease (CD), caused by Theileria parva lawrencei, and East Coast fever (ECF), caused by T. parva parva. Of the approximately 3 million cattle in Zambia, 1.4 million are at risk to theileriosis. ECF is found in the Northern and Eastern provinces of the country, while CD appears in Southern, Central, Lusaka and Copperbelt provinces. Theileriosis is a major constraint to the development of the livestock industry in Zambia, with losses of about 10,000 cattle per annum. The disease is spreading at a very fast rate, over-flowing its original borders. The epidemiology is complicated by, among other factors, the wide distribution of the tick vector, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, which is found all over the country. The current strategy of relying on tick control and therapeutic drugs as a way of controlling the disease is becoming increasingly difficult for Zambia. This is because both curative drugs and acaricides are very costly. Immunization against theileriosis using the infection and treatment method as a way of controlling the disease is becoming increasingly accepted, provided local Theileria stocks are used. This paper reviews the incidence of theileriosis in the last 2 years, 1991 and 1992. It also gives a historical perspective of the disease, epidemiology and control measures presently in use.