A review of immune modulators and immunotherapy in infectious diseases.

The human immune system responds to harmful foreign invaders frequently encountered by the body and employs defense mechanisms to counteract such assaults. Various exogenous and endogenous factors play a prominent role in maintaining the balanced functioning of the immune system, which can result in immune suppression or immune stimulation. With the advent of different immune-modulatory agents, immune responses can be modulated or regulated to control infections and other health effects. Literature provides evidence on various immunomodulators from different sources and their role in modulating immune responses. Due to the limited efficacy of current drugs and the rise in drug resistance, there is a growing need for new therapies for infectious diseases. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of different immune-modulating agents and immune therapies specifically focused on viral infectious diseases.

Biochemical and histopathological responses of the Swiss albino mice treated with uranyl nitrate and its recovery.

Uranium is a radioactive heavy metal ubiquitous in the natural environment. In its chemical form, it is known to induce nephrotoxicity both in human and in animals. Its toxicity is dose and time dependent, also varies with form of uranium. In the present study, we assessed the nephrotoxicity induced by a single dose of uranyl nitrate (UN) in mice at different time intervals and recovery from its toxicity. Two doses of 2 and 4 mg/kg body weight of uranyl nitrate was injected intraperitoneally and animals were sacrificed after 1, 3, 5, 14, and 28 d of administration. Histopathological and biochemical alterations of post-UN dosing in comparison to control were evaluated. Tubular damage to about 75% was observed after 3 d (4 mg/kg) and the biochemical parameters such as serum creatinine, urea, and blood urea nitrogen levels were also significantly increased. Progression of tubular damage was not found after 5 d. Dose-dependent recovery of uranyl nitrate-treated animals was observed after 14 and 28 d of dosing. The concentration of uranium retained in kidney correlates with biochemical and histopathological analysis.