Robust reporter system based on chalcone synthase rppA gene from Saccharopolyspora erythraea.

Industrial overproducing strains present unique hosts for expression of heterologous gene clusters encoding secondary metabolite biosynthesis. For this purpose, efficient gene expression tools and methods are needed. A robust and versatile reporter system based on the rppA gene from Saccharopolyspora erythraea is presented as the method of choice when studying gene expression in actinomycete hosts. The method is easily scalable to accommodate high-throughput procedure, and collected samples can be easily stored and re-tested when needed. The product of RppA is an inert 1,3,6,8-tetrahydroxynaphthalene which spontaneously oxidises to a dark-red quinone flaviolin providing a qualitative visual assessment of gene expression on an agar plate as well as a quantitative spectrophotometric measurement in liquid broth without the need for invasive procedures or external substrate addition. The applicability of the reporter system has been demonstrated by expressing the rppA gene under the control of the heterologous promoters actII-ORF4/PactI, ermE and its upregulated variant ermE*. The model streptomycete Streptomyces coelicolor, and three industrially important species, Streptomyces tsukubaensis (FK506), Streptomyces cinnamonensis (monensin) and Streptomyces rimosus (oxytetracycline) were used as hosts. The reporter system has shown its utility independently of cultivation conditions or composition of growth medium, from simple laboratory to complex industrial media. The simplicity and robustness of the system, demonstrated even in industrial settings, shows great potential for wider use in different microbial hosts and applications, and may thus represent a new generic and versatile tool useful to a wider scientific community.

Streptomyces lividans and Brevibacterium lactofermentum as heterologous hosts for the production of X22 xylanase from Aspergillus nidulans.

The Aspergillus nidulans gene xlnA coding for the fungal xylanase X22 has been cloned and expressed in two heterologous bacterial hosts: Streptomyces lividans and Brevibacterium lactofermentum. Streptomyces strains yielded 10 units/ml of xylanase when the protein was produced with its own signal peptide, and 19 units/ml when its signal peptide was replaced by the one for xylanase Xys1 from Streptomyces halstedii. B. lactofermentum was also able to produce xylanase X22, affording 6 units/ml upon using either the Aspergillus xlnA signal peptide or Streptomyces xysA. These production values are higher than those previously reported for the heterologous expression of the A. nidulans xlnA gene in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (1 unit/ml). Moreover, the X22 enzyme produced by Streptomyces lividans showed oenological properties, indicating that this Streptomyces recombinant strain is a good candidate for the production of this enzyme at the industrial scale.

SCP1, a 356,023 bp linear plasmid adapted to the ecology and developmental biology of its host, Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2).

The sequencing of the entire genetic complement of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) has been completed with the determination of the 365,023 bp sequence of the linear plasmid SCP1. Remarkably, the functional distribution of SCP1 genes somewhat resembles that of the chromosome: predicted gene products/functions include ECF sigma factors, antibiotic biosynthesis, a gamma-butyrolactone signalling system, members of the actinomycete-specific Wbl class of regulatory proteins and 14 secreted proteins. Some of these genes are among the 18 that contain a TTA codon, making them targets for the developmentally important tRNA encoded by the bldA gene. RNA analysis and gene fusions showed that one of the TTA-containing genes is part of a large bldA-dependent operon, the gene products of which include three proteins isolated from the spore surface by detergent washing (SapC, D and E), and several probable metabolic enzymes. SCP1 shows much evidence of recombinational interactions with other replicons and transposable elements during its history. For example, it has two sets of partitioning genes (which may explain why an integrated copy of SCP1 partially suppressed the defective partitioning of a parAB-deleted chromosome during sporulation). SCP1 carries a cluster of probable transfer determinants and genes encoding likely DNA polymerase III subunits, but it lacks an obvious candidate gene for the terminal protein associated with its ends. This may be related to atypical features of its end sequences.

Enzyme-mediated solvent extraction of carotenoids from marigold flower (Tagetes erecta).

Marigold flowers are the most important source of carotenoids for application in the food industry. However, the extraction gives almost 50% losses of the carotenoids depending on conditions for silaging, drying, and solvent extraction. In the past decades, macerating enzymes have been successfully applied to improve the extraction yield of valued compounds from natural products. In this work, an alternative extraction process for carotenoids is proposed, consisting of a simultaneous enzymatic treatment and solvent extraction. The proposed process employs milled fresh flowers directly as raw material, eliminating the inefficient silage and drying operations as well as the generation of hard to deal with aqueous effluents present in traditional processes. The process developed was tested at the 80 L scale, where under optimal conditions a carotenoid recovery yield of 97% was obtained.

Expression of the genes coding for the xylanase Xys1 and the cellulase Cel1 from the straw-decomposing Streptomyces halstedii JM8 cloned into the amino-acid producer Brevibacterium lactofermentum ATCC13869.

The xylanase ( xysA) and the cellulase ( celA1) genes from Streptomyces halstedii JM8 were cloned into Escherichia coli/ Brevibacterium lactofermentum shuttle vectors and successfully expressed in both hosts when placed downstream from the kanamycin resistance promoter (Pkan) from Tn 5 but not when under the control of their own promoters. Xylanase was secreted into the culture media of B. lactofermentum by removal of the same leader peptide as is removed in S. halstedii. The main difference between the production of xylanase by Streptomyces and corynebacteria was the low level of processing of the mature extracellular xylanase by B. lactofermentum, probably due to the lack of protease activity in this microorganism.

Selective enzyme-mediated extraction of capsaicinoids and caratenoids from chili guajillo puya (Capsicum annum L.) using ethanol as solvent.

The selective extraction of capsaicinoids and carotenoids from chili guajillo "puya" flour was studied. When ethanol was used as solvent, 80% of capsaicinoids and 73% of carotenoids were extracted, representing an interesting alternative for the substitution of hexane in industrial processes. Additionally, when the flour was pretreated with enzymes that break the cell wall and then dried, extraction in ethanol increased to 11 and 7% for carotenoid and capsaicinoid, respectively. A selective two-stage extraction process after the treatment with enzymes is proposed. The first step uses 30% (v/v) ethanol and releases up to 60% of the initial capsaicinoids, and the second extraction step with industrial ethanol permits the recovery of 83% of carotenoids present in the flour.

Introducing transglycosylation activity in a liquefying alpha-amylase.

By mutating Ala-289 by Phe or Tyr in the Bacillus stearothermophilus alpha-amylase, we induced this enzyme to perform alcoholytic reactions, a function not present in the wild-type enzyme. This residue was selected from homology analysis with neopullulanase, where the residue has been implicated in the control of transglycosylation [Kuriki et al. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 17321-173291. We made some inferences about the importance of electrostatic and geometrical modifications in the active site environment of the amylase to explain the behavior of the modified enzyme.

Alcoholysis reactions from starch with alpha-amylases.

The ability of alpha-amylases from different sources to carry out reactions of alcoholysis was studied using methanol as substrate. It was found that while the enzymes from Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae, two well-studied saccharifying amylases, are capable of alcoholysis reactions, the classical bacterial liquefying alpha-amylases from Bacillus licheniformis and Bacillus stearothermophilus are not. The effect of starch and methanol concentration, temperature and pH on the synthesis of glucosides with alpha-amylase from A. niger was studied. Although methanol may inactivate alpha-amylase, a 90% substrate relative conversion can be obtained in 20% methanol at a high starch concentration (15% w/v) due to a stabilizing effect of starch on the enzyme. As the products of alcoholysis are a series of methyl-oligosaccharides, from methyl-glucoside to methyl-hexomaltoside, alcoholysis was indirectly quantified by high performance liquid chromatography analysis of the total methyl-glucoside produced after the addition of glucoamylase to the alpha-amylase reaction products. More alcoholysis was obtained from intact soluble starch than with maltodextrins or pre-hydrolyzed starch. The biotechnological implications of using starch as substrate for the production of alkyl-glucosides is analyzed in the context of these results.

Thermodynamic stability of two variants of xylanase (Xys1) from Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

In a continuation of our earlier study [Ruiz-Arribas, A., Santamaría, R.I., Zhadan, G. G., Villar, E. & Shnyrov, V. L. (1994) Differential scanning calorimetric study of the thermal stability of xylanase from Streptomyces halstedii JM8, Biochemistry 33, 13787-13791], we used high-sensitivity differential scanning microcalorimetry, intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence and far-ultraviolet circular dichroism to study the effect of regional sequence differences on the thermodynamic stability of xylanase (Xys1) from Streptomyces halstedii JM8 (1,4-beta-D-xylanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.8). Thermal transitions were measured for original xylanase (Xys1S) and two variants. Thermal denaturation of all the xylanases studied revealed two structural domains, each of which, despite its partial irreversibility, follows a two-state thermal unfolding process under our experimental conditions. Both variants were found to exhibit slightly decreased stability, possessing the same activity as the original. The unfolding parameters for each domain of both variants, unlike the situation with wild-type xylanase (see our previous report), fit some correlations obtained for the most compact globular proteins. The values of enthalpy and entropy of unfolding/residue at 383 K were found to be inversely proportional to residual, well-regulated structures in unfolded states.

Effect of carbon source on the expression of celA1, a cellulase-encoding gene from Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

The production of the cellulase Cell from Streptomyces halstedii JM8 was studied in cells grown in the presence of glucose, cellobiose or microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel). Among these, glucose repressed expression while cellobiose and Avicel exerted a clear induction. The gene celA1 was cloned in several heterologous Streptomyces hosts and its expression analyzed. S. parvulus transformed with the plasmid pJM11, a pIJ702 derivative, was the best producer. A region which includes the sequence ATTGGGACCGCTTCC located between positions -161 and -147 upstream from the translation initiation codon [Fernández-Abalos et al. (1992) J. Bacteriol. 174, 6368-6376] was deleted and its effect was studied in the presence of different carbon sources. Although the observed effect depends on the host used, this region seems to be involved in activation of the expression of this gene.

Analysis of xysA, a gene from Streptomyces halstedii JM8 that encodes a 45-kilodalton modular xylanase, Xys1.

The gene xysA from Streptomyces halstedii JM8 encodes a protein of 461 amino acids (Xys1) which is secreted into the culture supernatant as a protein of 45 kDa (Xys1L). Later, this form is proteolytically processed after residue D-362 to produce the protein Xys1S, which conserves the same xylanolytic activity. The cleavage removes a domain of 99 amino acids that shows similarity to bacterial cellulose binding domains and that allows the protein Xys1L to bind to crystalline cellulose (Avicel). Expression of this monocistronic gene is affected by the carbon source present in the culture medium, xylan being the best inducer. By using an anti-Xys1L serum, we have been able to detect xylanases similar in size to Xys1L and Xys1S in most of the different Streptomyces species analyzed, suggesting the ubiquity of these types of xylanases and their processing mechanism.

Two genes encoding an endoglucanase and a cellulose-binding protein are clustered and co-regulated by a TTA codon in Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

Streptomyces halstedii JM8 Cel2 is an endoglucanase of 28 kDa that is first produced as a protein of 42 kDa (p42) and is later processed at its C-terminus. Cel2 displays optimal activity towards CM-cellulose at pH6 and 50 degrees C and shows no activity against crystalline cellulose or xylan. The N-terminus of p42 shares similarity with cellulases included in family 12 of the beta-glycanases and the C-terminus shares similarity with bacterial cellulose-binding domains included in family II. This latter domain enables the precursor to bind so tightly to Avicel that it can only be eluted by boiling in 10% (w/v) SDS. Another open reading frame (ORF) situated 216 bp downstream from the p42 ORF encodes a protein of 40 kDa (p40) that does not have any clear hydrolytic activity against cellulosic or xylanosic compounds, but shows high affinity for Avicel (crystalline cellulose). The p40 protein is processed in old cultures to give a protein of 35 kDa that does not bind to Avicel. Translation of both ORFs is impaired in Streptomyces coelicolor bldA mutants, suggesting that a TTA codon situated at the fourth position of the first ORF is responsible for this regulation. S1 nuclease protection experiments demonstrate that both ORFs are co-transcribed.

A cellulase gene from a new alkalophilic Bacillus sp. (strain N186-1). Its cloning, nucleotide sequence and expression in Escherichia coli.

Several alkalophilic Bacillus spp. strains were selected for their capacity to produce alkaline cellulases. Culture supernatants of these strains showed optimal cellulase activities between pH 8 and 9 and they were stable from pH 6 to pH 12. A cellulase gene (celB1) from the alkalophilic Bacillus sp. strain N186-1 was cloned in Escherichia coli using polymerase chain reaction techniques. The cloned gene was present in a 2.539-bp HindIII fragment and its nucleotide sequence was determined. The coding sequence showed an open-reading frame encoding 389 amino acids. The amino acid sequence, deduced from the nucleotide sequence, permitted us to include it in family 5 (or A) of the glycosyl hydrolases. The complete open-reading frame of celB1 was cloned in the plasmid pET-11d and expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3), in which a protein of 39 kDa was obtained in the cytoplasm; however, no endoglucanase activity was detected. A second construction in pET-12a allowed the production of a 39-kDa protein located in the periplasmic space of E. coli that had endoglucanase activity. The protein produced has optimal activity at pH 7 and 50 degrees C and it retains more than 70% of its activity after incubation for 1 h at pH 12.

Differential scanning calorimetry of the irreversible thermal denaturation of cellulase from Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

High-sensitivity differential scanning calorimetry has been applied to characterize the irreversible thermal denaturation of a cellulase, assuming that thermal denaturation takes place according to the kinetic scheme N-k-->D, where k is a first-order kinetic constant that changes with temperature, as given by the Arrhenius equation; N the native state, and D the denatured one. On the basis of this model, the values of the rate constant as a function of temperature and the activation energy were calculated. The analytical data obtained with the fluorescence method as well by measurement of the enzymatic activity temperature dependence support this two-state kinetic model.

Cloning and DNA sequencing of xyaA, a gene encoding an endo-beta-1,4-xylanase from an alkalophilic Bacillus strain (N137).

The gene xyaA encoding an alkaline endo-beta 1,4-xylanase from an alkalophilic Bacillus sp. strain (N137) isolated in our laboratory was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The nucleotide sequence of a 1,656-bp DNA fragment containing xyaA was determined, revealing one open reading frame of 993 bp that encodes a xylanase (XyaA) of 39 kDa. This xylanase lacks a typical putative signal peptide, yet the protein is found in the Bacillus culture supernatant. In Escherichia coli, the active protein is located mainly in the periplasmic space. The xylanase activity of the cloned XyaA is an endo-acting enzyme that shows optimal activity at pH 8 and 40 degrees C. This activity is stable at a pH between 6 and 11. Incubations of XyaA at 40 degrees C for 1 h destroyed 45% of the activity.

Overproduction, purification, and biochemical characterization of a xylanase (Xys1) from Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

Streptomyces halstedii JM8, isolated from straw, produces and secretes into the culture supernatant at least two proteins with hydrolytic activity towards xylan. The cloning of a DNA fragment of this microorganism in several Streptomyces strains permitted us to overproduce both proteins. N-terminal sequence analyses, immunoblot assays, and time course overproduction experiments allowed us to ensure that both xylanases were encoded by the same gene and that the smallest form (35 kDa) originated from the large one (45 kDa) by proteolytic cleavage on the C terminus. The production of both forms was studied in different strains carrying the gene in a multicopy plasmid. The best production was obtained with Streptomyces parvulus transformed with the plasmid pJM9, a pIJ702 derivative, which yielded 144 U/ml. Both forms of the xylanase were purified with a fast-performance liquid chromatography system and characterized biochemically. The optimal pH and temperature, for both, were 6.3 and 60 degrees C, respectively, in 7.5-min assays. Both proteins were highly stable in a wide range of pHs (4 to 10) and temperatures (4 to 50 degrees C); nevertheless, after 1-h incubations, both enzymes lost most of their activity at temperatures over 55 to 60 degrees C. Endoxylanolytic activity was demonstrated in both enzymes, but no beta-xylosidase activity was detected.

Differential scanning calorimetric study of the thermal stability of xylanase from Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

The thermal stability of two xylanases with molecular masses of 45 (Xys1L) and 35 (Xys1S) kDa has been characterized thermodynamically by high-sensitivity scanning microcalorimetry in the pH range 3.0-9.0. Thermal denaturation of Xys1L reveals three thermodynamically independent domains, and that of Xys1S, which is a proteolytic fragment of Xys1L (without a C-terminal part), reveals two thermodynamically independent domains, each of which follows a two-state thermal unfolding process under our experimental conditions. Nevertheless, the thermodynamic parameters of unfolding for each domain do not fit some of the correlations obtained for most compact globular proteins. It is known that if delta Hres(T) and delta Sres(T) are plotted against temperature for a number of water-soluble compact globular proteins, they all have a common value at approximately 110 degrees C (383 K). Calculation of the variations in the enthalpy and entropy of unfolding per residue for each domain of xylanase with temperature gave us delta Hres(383) and delta Sres(383) values of approximately 3 kcal/(mol of residue) and 9 cal/(K.mol of residue), respectively. This is practically 2-fold larger than those apparent for most medium-sized globular protein values. These discrepancies might be related to features of the folded and/or unfolded states of the protein.

Cloning and DNA sequencing of bgaA, a gene encoding an endo-beta-1,3-1,4-glucanase, from an alkalophilic Bacillus strain (N137).

The gene bgaA encoding an alkaline endo-beta-1,3-1,4-glucanase (lichenase) from an alkalophilic Bacillus sp. strain N137, isolated in our laboratory, was cloned and expressed from its own promoter in Escherichia coli. The nucleotide sequence of a 1,416-bp DNA fragment containing bgaA was determined and revealed an open reading frame of 828 nucleotides. The deduced protein sequence consists of 276 amino acids and has a 31-amino-acid putative signal peptide which is functional in E. coli, in which the BgaA protein is located mainly in the periplasmic space. The lichenase activity of BgaA is stable between pH 6 and 12, it shows optimal activity at a temperature between 60 and 70 degrees C, and it retains 65% of its activity after incubation at 70 degrees C for 1 h. This protein is similar to some other lichenases from Bacillus species such as B. amyloliquefaciens, B. brevis, B. licheniformis, B. macerans, B. polymyxa, and B. subtilis. However, it has a lysine-rich region at the carboxy terminus which is not found in any other published lichenase sequence and might be implicated in the unusual biochemical properties of this enzyme. The location of the mRNA 5' end was determined by primer extension and corresponds to nucleotide 235. A typical Bacillus sigma A promoter precedes the transcription start site.

Cloning and nucleotide sequence of celA1, and endo-beta-1,4-glucanase-encoding gene from Streptomyces halstedii JM8.

The celA1 gene encoding an endo-beta-1,4-glucanase from a mesophilic actinomycete, strain JM8, identified as Streptomyces halstedii, was cloned and expressed in S. lividans JI66. From the nucleotide sequence of a 1.7-kb DNA fragment we identified an open reading frame of 963 nucleotides encoding a protein of 321 amino acids, starting at TTG (instead of ATG). The Cel1 mature enzyme is a protein of 294 amino acids (after signal peptide cleavage) and can be included in the beta-glycanase family B (N. R. Gilkes, B. Henrissat, D. G. Kilburn, R. C. Miller, Jr., and R. A. J. Warren, Microbiol. Rev. 55:303-315, 1991). The Cel1 enzyme lacks a cellulose-binding domain as predicted by computer analysis of the sequence and confirmed by Avicel binding experiments. The promoter region of celA1 was identified by S1 mapping; the -35 region closely resembles those of housekeeping Streptomyces promoters. Three imperfectly repeated sequences of 15, 15, and 14 nucleotides were found upstream from celA1 [ATTGGGACCGCTTCC-(N85)-ATTGGGACCGCTTCC-(N2)-TGGGAGC GCTCCCA]; The 14-nucleotide sequence has a perfect palindrome identical to that found in several cellulase-encoding genes from Thermomonospora fusca, an alkalophilic Streptomyces strain, and Streptomyces lividans. This sequence has been implicated in the mechanism of induction exerted by cellobiose. Using an internal celA1 probe, we detected similar genes in several other Streptomyces species, most of them cellulase producers.

Identification of a promoter sequence in the plasmid pUL340 of Brevibacterium lactofermentum and construction of new cloning vectors for corynebacteria containing two selectable markers.

A strong promoter P1 has been found in plasmid pUL340, a cloning vector used to transform corynebacteria. This promoter is also expressed efficiently in Escherichia coli. A gene (cat) for chloramphenicol acetyltransferase from Streptomyces acrimycini and a gene (hyg) for hygromycin phosphotransferase from Streptomyces hygroscopicus were subcloned in different positions of the Brevibacterium lactofermentum plasmid pUL340. Both resistance genes are expressed in B. lactofermentum from their own promoters or from the endogenous promoter in pUL340. These genes provide useful screening markers for selecting transformants of B. lactofermentum together with the kanamycin-resistance gene from the transposon Tn5.