Integrative emotion regulation relates to sympathy and support for outgroups-Independent of situational outgroup behaviour.

Intergroup emotions powerfully shape intergroup relations. Anger and fear fuel, while hope and sympathy reduce intergroup strife. This implies that emotion regulation may play an important role in improving intergroup relations. Broadening the scope of prior research, we herein investigate the potential benefits of integrative emotion regulation for improving intergroup relations. Integrative emotion regulation involves actively paying attention to emotions to determine which information they provide. Interindividual differences in the use of integrative emotion regulation correlate with sympathy and supportiveness towards outgroups, but why this is the case is unclear. We tested two possible explanations: a person effect (i.e., interindividual differences in integrative emotion regulation shape respondents' general outlook on outgroups) and a person-situation interaction effect (i.e., integrative emotion regulation reduces the impact of situational factors that would typically dampen sympathy, thereby shaping situation-specific responses to outgroups). In four experiments (total N = 984), we manipulated outgroup behaviour and measured interindividual differences in integrative emotion regulation. We found no interaction between integrative emotion regulation and outgroup behaviour in predicting outgroup-directed sympathy and supportiveness. Instead, integrative emotion regulation consistently correlated positively with supportiveness, mediated by sympathy. These findings suggest that those high in integrative emotion regulation have a more positive, general outlook on outgroups than those low in integrative emotion regulation, but being high in integrative emotion does not alter situational responses.

Individual, intergroup and nation-level influences on belief in conspiracy theories.

Conspiracy theories are part of mainstream public life, with the potential to undermine governments, promote racism, ignite extremism and threaten public health efforts. Psychological research on conspiracy theories is booming, with more than half of the academic articles on the topic published since 2019. In this Review, we synthesize the literature with an eye to understanding the psychological factors that shape willingness to believe conspiracy theories. We begin at the individual level, examining the cognitive, clinical, motivational, personality and developmental factors that predispose people to believe conspiracy theories. Drawing on insights from social and evolutionary psychology, we then review research examining conspiracy theories as an intergroup phenomenon that reflects and reinforces societal fault lines. Finally, we examine how conspiracy theories are shaped by the economic, political, cultural and socio-historical contexts at the national level. This multilevel approach offers a deep and broad insight into conspiracist thinking that increases understanding of the problem and offers potential solutions.

Let's stay in touch: Frequency (but not mode) of interaction between leaders and followers predicts better leadership outcomes.

Successful leadership requires leaders to make their followers aware of expectations regarding the goals to achieve, norms to follow, and task responsibilities to take over. This awareness is often achieved through leader-follower communication. In times of economic globalization and digitalization, however, leader-follower communication has become both more digitalized (virtual, rather than face-to-face) and less frequent, making successful leader-follower-communication more challenging. The current research tested in four studies (three preregistered) whether digitalization and frequency of interaction predict task-related leadership success. In one cross-sectional (Study 1, N = 200), one longitudinal (Study 2, N = 305), and one quasi-experimental study (Study 3, N = 178), as predicted, a higher frequency (but not a lower level of digitalization) of leader-follower interactions predicted better task-related leadership outcomes (i.e., stronger goal clarity, norm clarity, and task responsibility among followers). Via mediation and a causal chain approach, Study 3 and Study 4 (N = 261) further targeted the mechanism; results showed that the relationship between (higher) interaction frequency and these outcomes is due to followers perceiving more opportunities to share work-related information with the leaders. These results improve our understanding of contextual factors contributing to leadership success in collaborations across hierarchies. They highlight that it is not the digitalization but rather the frequency of interacting with their leader that predicts whether followers gain clarity about the relevant goals and norms to follow and the task responsibilities to assume.

Testing the impact of interpersonal regulatory fit on empathy, helping intentions, and prosocial behaviour.

Similarity with others in need regarding various attributes [e.g., social group membership] has been shown to increase individuals' empathic responses, willingness to help and prosocial behaviour. We tested whether a subtle similarity, namely of observers' and targets' self-regulatory orientation in terms of a promotion or prevention regulatory focus [i.e., interpersonal regulatory fit], would entail similar effects. Interpersonal regulatory [mis]fit was conveyed through focus-congruent or -incongruent emotional reactions which targets, facing distressing situations, expressed. We predicted that when observer participants' regulatory focus fits with targets' negative emotional reaction [i.e., promotion focus-dejection or prevention focus-agitation], they would be more likely to express empathy, willingness to help, and to engage in prosocial behaviour towards this target compared to conditions of misfit. Five studies relied on observers' chronic regulatory focus [Study 1, 3, & 4] and situationally induced regulatory focus [Study 2 & 5] and presented different distressing scenarios with targets conveying focus [in]congruent negative emotions. Inconsistent results emerged across the studies, which indicated misfit, fit and no effects. Study characteristics did not suggest a moderator explaining these inconsistent findings. An internal meta-analysis across all studies indicated that overall there was no evidence of either a fit or a misfit effect. This work sheds light on the technical challenges of exploring relations between subtle interpersonal regulatory [mis]fit and prosocial reactions. Implications for future research are discussed, including the importance of creating stronger interpersonal [mis]fit experiences by means of incorporating descriptions of distressed targets' hindered goal pursuits as well as negative reactions.

The Relation of Attitude Toward Technology and Mastery Experience After an App-Guided Physical Exercise Intervention: Randomized Crossover Trial.

BACKGROUND: Physical exercise has been found to assert a positive impact on many muscular conditions. Exercise under face-to-face supervision is the gold standard, but access to it is limited, for instance, for economic reasons. App-guided therapy is an intervention that is more affordable and easily accessible. However, attitude toward technology is a key predictor for media adoption and is therefore expected to shape user experience during app-guided therapy. This might be of particular importance for mastery experience, which is crucial for promoting exercise-related self-efficacy and perceived usefulness of the interaction. Both should empower patients to continuously exercise. OBJECTIVE: This study sought to test whether attitudes toward technology predict mastery experience and perceived usefulness of the interaction after an app- versus a physiotherapist-guided treatment. We expect that attitudes toward technology positively predict both outcomes in case of the app-guided but not in case of the physiotherapist-guided treatment. METHODS: Patients (n=54) with clinically diagnosed hip osteoarthritis participated in 2 training sessions with the same exercise intervention, once guided by an app on a tablet computer and once guided by a physiotherapist in a German university hospital. The order of the sessions was randomized. Attitude toward technology was assessed as predictor before the first session, while mastery experience and the global perceived usefulness of interaction as self-reported outcomes after each session. RESULTS: In line with our hypotheses, attitude toward technology predicted mastery experience (b=0.16, standard error=0.07, P=.02) and usefulness of interaction (b=0.17, standard error=0.06, P=.01) after the app-based training but not after the training delivered by a physiotherapist (P>.3 in all cases). Mastery experience was lower for the app-based training but reached a very similar level as the physiotherapist-guided training for those holding a very positive attitude toward technology. CONCLUSIONS: The attitude toward technology predicts the extent of mastery experience after app-guided exercise therapy. As mastery experience is highly important for self-efficacy and future exercise behavior, attitudes toward technology should be considered when delivering app-guided exercise treatments. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trials Register DRKS00015759; https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00015759.

Pro-vaccination subjective norms moderate the relationship between conspiracy mentality and vaccination intentions.

OBJECTIVES: Increasing vaccination hesitancy threatens societies' capacity to contain pandemics and other diseases. One factor that is positively associated with vaccination intentions is a supportive subjective norm (i.e., the perception that close others approve of vaccination). On the downside, there is evidence that negative attitudes toward vaccinations are partly rooted in conspiracy mentality (i.e., the tendency to believe in conspiracies). The objective of this study is to examine the role of subjective norms in moderating the association between conspiracy mentality and vaccine hesitancy. We examined two competing predictions: Are those high in conspiracy mentality immune to subjective norms, or do subjective norms moderate the relationship between conspiracy mentality and vaccination intentions? METHODS: We conducted five studies (total N = 1,280) to test these hypotheses across several vaccination contexts (some real, some fictitious). We measured conspiracy mentality, vaccination intentions, subjective norms, attitudes toward vaccination, and perceived behavioural control. RESULTS: A merged analysis across the studies revealed an interaction effect of conspiracy mentality and subjective norm on vaccination intentions. When subjective norm was high (i.e., when participants perceived that close others approved of vaccines) conspiracy mentality no longer predicted vaccination intentions. This was consistent with the moderating hypothesis of subjective norms and inconsistent with the immunity hypothesis. CONCLUSIONS: The typical negative relationship between conspiracy mentality and vaccination intentions is eliminated among those who perceive pro-vaccination subjective norms. Although correlational, these data raise the possibility that pro-vaccination views of friends and family can be leveraged to reduce vaccine hesitancy.

You gotta fight! - Why norm-violations and outgroup criticism lead to confrontational reactions.

Group members frequently face group-related discrepancies, such as other group members violating group norms or outgroup members criticising the ingroup. In response, they often engage in confrontational reactions like expressing disapproval or excluding the person causing the discrepancy. The present work tests the often voiced but rarely studied idea that group-related discrepancies are met with such confrontational responses because discrepancies elicit feelings of threat. Our approach is inspired by research on threat-regulation, which links certain negative emotions to the activation of specific threat-regulatory systems. Three experiments (Ntotal = 680) provide evidence suggesting that group-related discrepancies foster emotions consistent with an activation of the Fight-Flight-Freeze-System (especially anger-related emotions tied to fight-tendencies), emotions consistent with an activation of the Behavioural Inhibition System (i.e. anxiety-related emotions), and confrontational intentions. The effect of discrepancies on confrontational intentions was mediated by heightened anger-related emotions. This supports the idea that confrontational reactions are driven by experienced threat and that these reactions are rightfully called confrontational. We discuss our results in relation to research on ingroup norm-violations, outgroup criticism, and threat perception.

How Identification With the Social Environment and With the Government Guide the Use of the Official COVID-19 Contact Tracing App: Three Quantitative Survey Studies.

BACKGROUND: Official contact tracing apps have been implemented and recommended for use across nations to track and contain the spread of COVID-19. Such apps can be effective if people are willing to use them. Accordingly, many attempts are being made to motivate citizens to make use of the officially recommended apps. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this research was to contribute to an understanding of the preconditions under which people are willing to use a COVID-19 contact tracing app (ie, their use intentions and use). To go beyond personal motives in favor of app use, it is important to take people's social relationships into account, under the hypothesis that the more people identify with the beneficiaries of app use (ie, people living close by in their social environment) and with the source recommending the app (ie, members of the government), the more likely they will be to accept the officially recommended contact tracing app. METHODS: Before, right after, and 5 months after the official contact tracing app was launched in Germany, a total of 1044 people participated in three separate surveys. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypotheses, examining the same model in all studies at these critical points in time. RESULTS: Across the three surveys, both identification with the beneficiaries (people living in their social environment) and with the source recommending the app (members of the government) predicted greater intention to use and use (installation) of the official contact tracing app. Trust in the source (members of the government) served as a mediator. Other types of identification (with people in Germany or people around the world) did not explain the observed results. The findings were highly consistent across the three surveys. CONCLUSIONS: Attempts to motivate people to use new health technology (or potentially new measures more generally) not only for their personal benefit but also for collective benefits should take the social context into account (ie, the social groups people belong to and identify with). The more important the beneficiaries and the sources of such measures are to people's sense of the self, the more willing they will likely be to adhere to and support such measures.

A matter of flexibility: Changing outgroup attitudes through messages with negations.

Attitudes toward outgroups are an important determinant of peaceful coexistence in diverse societies, but it is difficult to improve them. The current research studies the impact of messages with negations on outgroup attitudes, more specifically on outgroup trust. All studies were preregistered. Using different target groups, Studies 1 and 2 provide evidence for the prediction that communicating negations (e.g., "they are not deceptive") enhances outgroup trust (more so than affirmations, such as "they are reliable," and no messages) among people who are initially low in outgroup trust. Three additional studies (Studies 3a, 3b, and 4), using both a causal chain approach and (moderated) mediation analysis, demonstrate that negations promote cognitive flexibility which in turn enhances outgroup trust among those initially low in outgroup trust. One final study suggests that these findings generalize to outgroup attitude change per se by showing that communicating negations also results in more moderate attitudes when the dominant initial attitude is positive (Study 5: high warmth) rather than negative (Studies 1-4: low trustworthiness). As such, communication that negates people's initial outgroup attitudes could be an effective (previously discounted) intervention to reduce prejudice in intergroup settings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Positive and negative emotions predict weight loss intentions and behaviors beyond theory of planned behavior constructs.

PURPOSE: The current study examined the predictive utility of emotional valence (i.e., positive and negative emotions) on weight loss intentions and behaviors, beyond theory of planned behavior constructs (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and perceived control), among a community sample of people who were overweight (BMI > 25 kg/m2). METHODS: Participants were recruited for a longitudinal study via an online panel. They completed a baseline survey (N = 732) and a follow-up survey 6 months later (N = 526), both administered online. The surveys included measures of attitude, subjective norms, perceived control, positive and negative emotions regarding one's current weight, intentions to engage in weight loss behaviors (time 1), and having engaged in weight loss behaviors in the past 6 months (time 2). RESULTS: Emotion explained additional variance in weight loss intentions (range ΔR2 = 0.03-0.10, all ps < 0.01) and behaviors (range ΔR2 = 0.01-0.02, all ps < 0.05) beyond theory of planned behavior constructs. Negative emotions mainly predicted the intake of unhealthy food and seeking social support, whereas positive emotions predicted physical activity (intention and behavior). These results suggested that the differential relations might be based on whether the strategy is approach or avoidance oriented. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these findings, comprehensive models of weight loss behaviors should consider emotion, and the valence of such emotion, regarding current weight. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, multiple time series without intervention.

Effectiveness of Human Versus Computer-Based Instructions for Exercise on Physical Activity-Related Health Competence in Patients with Hip Osteoarthritis: Randomized Noninferiority Crossover Trial.

BACKGROUND: Hip and knee osteoarthritis is ranked as the 11th highest contributor to global disability. Exercise is a core treatment in osteoarthritis. The model for physical activity-related health competence describes possibilities to empower patients to perform physical exercises in the best possible health-promoting manner while taking into account their own physical condition. Face-to-face supervision is the gold standard for exercise guidance. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate whether instruction and guidance via a digital app is not inferior to supervision by a physiotherapist with regard to movement quality, control competence for physical training, and exercise-specific self-efficacy. METHODS: Patients with clinically diagnosed hip osteoarthritis were recruited via print advertisements, emails and flyers. The intervention consisted of two identical training sessions with one exercise for mobility, two for strength, and one for balance. One session was guided by a physiotherapist and the other was guided by a fully automated tablet computer-based app. Both interventions took place at a university hospital. Outcomes were assessor-rated movement quality, and self-reported questionnaires on exercise-specific self-efficacy and control competence for physical training. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two treatment sequences. One sequence started with the app in the first session followed by the physiotherapist in the second session after a minimum washout phase of 27 days (AP group) and the other sequence occurred in the reverse order (PA group). Noninferiority was defined as a between-treatment effect (gIG)<0.2 in favor of the physiotherapist-guided training, including the upper confidence interval. Participants, assessors, and the statistician were neither blinded to the treatment nor to the treatment sequence. RESULTS: A total of 54 participants started the first training session (32 women, 22 men; mean age 62.4, SD 8.2 years). The treatment sequence groups were similar in size (PA: n=26; AP: n=28). Seven subjects did not attend the second training session (PA: n=3; AP: n=4). The app was found to be inferior to the physiotherapist in all outcomes considered, except for movement quality of the mobility exercise (gIG -0.13, 95% CI -0.41-0.16). In contrast to the two strengthening exercises in different positions (supine gIG 0.76, 95% CI 0.39-1.13; table gIG 1.19, 95% CI 0.84-1.55), movement quality of the balance exercise was close to noninferiority (gIG 0.15, 95% CI -0.17-0.48). Exercise-specific self-efficacy showed a strong effect in favor of the physiotherapist (gIG 0.84, 95% CI 0.46-1.22). In terms of control competence for physical training, the app was only slightly inferior to the physiotherapist (gIG 0.18, 95% CI -0.14-0.50). CONCLUSIONS: Despite its inferiority in almost all measures of interest, exercise-specific self-efficacy and control competence for physical training did improve in patients who used the digital app. Movement quality was acceptable for exercises that are easy to conduct and instruct. The digital app opens up possibilities as a supplementary tool to support patients in independent home training for less complex exercises; however, it cannot replace a physiotherapist. TRIAL REGISTRATION: German Clinical Trial Register: DRKS00015759; http://www.drks.de/DRKS00015759.

Team Sports Off the Field: Competing Excludes Cooperating for Individual but Not for Team Athletes.

Both team and individual sports require competition, whereas cooperation is more prevalent in team than in individual sports. In particular, team athletes have to compete (for starting roles) while cooperating (for team success) with the same teammates. For team athletes, competition and cooperative behavior, two mutually exclusive constructs according to earlier psychological research, might therefore be less incompatible than for individual athletes. In Study 1, team athletes attributed a higher demand to compete and cooperate with the same teammates or training partners to their sport than individual athletes to their sport. Study 2 showed that experiencing competition (vs. control) undermines information sharing less for team than for individual athletes. In addition, Study 2 demonstrated that priming competition undermines the accessibility of cooperative thoughts less for team than for individual athletes. Therefore, team athletes might be better at competing without ceasing to cooperate. Implications for collaboration in groups are discussed.

The power to adapt: How sense of power predicts number processing.

When people solve numerical tasks, they are able to adapt their responses to characteristics of the task. This suggests that number processing is under cognitive control. Yet, such prior research on cognitive control in numerical cognition largely focused on the role of task stimuli-neglecting the role of predictors that are not directly linked to cognitive and numerical capacities. Do people who sense control in other domains (such as their interpersonal relationships) employ cognitive control differently when processing numbers? As a first step to examine this, we investigated how a person's sense of power (as a predictor known to facilitate cognitive control in other domains) predicts number processing. People sensing relatively high (rather than low) power in their everyday lives usually exert more cognitive control, which enables them to better adapt to a given task setting. Building upon this, we predicted that sense of power facilitates number processing-but, only when the task setting provides valid decision-relevant information that people can adapt to. As indicator of adaptation to the task setting, we assessed the unit-decade compatibility effect. Indeed, sense of power predicted a smaller compatibility effect (better adaptation) when valid information was available; in contrast, sense of power tended to predict a larger compatibility effect when only ambiguous information was available. These findings highlight that cognitive control in number processing not only depends on stimuli, but can also depend on broader individual factors, such as people's sensed control in interpersonal situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

When those who know do share: Group goals facilitate information sharing, but social power does not undermine it.

Good team decisions require that team members share information with each other. Yet, members often tend to selfishly withhold important information. Does this tendency depend on their power within the team? Power-holders frequently act more selfishly (than the powerless)-accordingly, they might be tempted to withhold information. We predicted that given a task goal to 'solve a task', power-holders would selfishly share less information than the powerless. However, a group goal to 'solve the task together' would compensate for this selfishness, heightening particularly power-holders' information sharing. In parallel, an individual goal to 'solve the task alone' may heighten selfishness and lower information sharing (even) among the powerless. We report five experiments (N = 1305), comprising all studies conducted in their original order. Analyses yielded weak to no evidence for these predictions; the findings rather supported the beneficial role of a group goal to ensure information sharing for both the powerful and the powerless.

It's a challenge! Empathizing with sad but not with angry individuals results in cardiovascular reactivity consistent with a challenge motivational state.

The question of what feeling with another person elicits in the empathizing individual has instigated innumerable studies mainly focusing on the affective valence of empathy and the resulting consequences for prosocial behavior (cf. the empathy-altruism debate). The present research may contribute to this long-lasting debate by examining the cardiovascular reactivity of the empathizing individual. To that effect, the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1996) was applied and impedance cardiography was implemented while individuals were instructed to feel with a target person who reacted differently to a need-causing event (with anger vs. sadness). Thereby, it is possible to test whether empathizers process coping-related cues when feeling with a target person in need. Results of one experiment (N = 160 women) revealed that empathizing with a sad (vs. an angry) target results in cardiovascular reactivity consistent with relative challenge-an energy-mobilizing state associated with relatively high resources. These findings suggest that coping-related appraisal processes influence how the empathizing individual reacts in terms of cardiovascular reactivity. This, in turn, provides novel insights regarding the affective-motivational outcomes of empathy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

What if my colleague was wrong and I was right? The impact of counterfactual mindsets and interpersonal focus on written communication and decision making in a hidden profile task.

Past research on counterfactual mindsets (CFMs) has mainly focused on how those influence dealing with own information, without addressing the potential impact of CFMs on responses to others' information. Thus, this study examined how CFMs combined with an interpersonal focus influence responses to others' statements in a decision making context. Results reveal that a CFM combined with an interpersonal focus leads to more biased communication in response to others' information, thereby reinforcing own preferences. No such effect was observed in an intrapersonal focus or a control condition. A congruency between induction and application context thus seems to make the application of CFMs more likely. We discuss our findings in relation to previous work on counterfactual thinking and the mindset literature in general.

Regulatory focus, coping strategies and symptoms of anxiety and depression: A comparison between Syrian refugees in Turkey and Germany.

Civil war, flight, escape and expulsion are extremely stressful and assert a negative impact on refugees' mental health. However scientific research about resilience and coping of refugees is scarce. Especially in the recent refugee crisis, calls have been made to consider factors contributing to coping and resilience in this vulnerable population. Therefore, the current research sought to investigate individual differences that could serve as antecedents of coping and contextual factors that might moderate these effects. Specifically, it took into account individual's self-regulatory differences in terms of regulatory focus (i.e., a promotion focus on nurturance needs, ideals and gains vs. a prevention focus on security needs, oughts and losses). It furthermore explored contextual influences by considering Syrian refugees in Turkey (Sample 1, N = 273) and Germany (Sample 2, N = 169). Compared to Syrian refugees in Turkey, those in Germany had a stronger promotion focus. They also reported more problem-focused and less maladaptive coping, as well as less symptoms. Both promotion and prevention focus were positively related to problem-focused coping. Problem-focused coping, in turn, predicted more symptoms in Turkey but not in Germany. Furthermore, a stronger promotion focus was associated with less symptoms and maladaptive coping was associated with more symptoms in both samples. These results contribute to the coping literature in demonstrating that under certain conditions problem-focused coping can be maladaptive and extend the scarce previous work on self-regulation and coping. Most importantly, they highlight a promotion focus as a clear resilience factor and the role of maladaptive coping in increasing vulnerability. As such, they might inform the design of effective interventions among Syrian refugees and beyond.

The Burden of Power: Construing Power as Responsibility (Rather Than as Opportunity) Alters Threat-Challenge Responses.

Power usually lowers stress responses. In stressful situations, having high (vs. low) power heightens challenge and lowers threat. Yet, even power-holders may experience threat when becoming aware of the responsibility that accompanies their power. Power-holders can construe (i.e., understand) a high-power position primarily as opportunity to "make things happen" or as responsibility to "take care of things." Power-holders construing power as responsibility (rather than opportunity) may be more likely to experience demands-such as taking care of important decisions under their control-as outweighing their resources, resulting in less challenge and more threat. Four experiments with subjective and cardiovascular threat-challenge indicators support this. Going beyond prior work on structural aspects (e.g., power instability) that induce stress, we show that merely the way how power-holders construe their power can evoke stress. Specifically, we find that power construed as responsibility (vs. opportunity) is more likely to imply a "burden" for the power-holder.

Perceived Threat and Internet Use Predict Intentions to Get Bowel Cancer Screening (Colonoscopy): Longitudinal Questionnaire Study.

BACKGROUND: Many people use the Internet for health-related information search, which is known to help regulate their emotional state. However, not much is known yet about how Web-based information search together with negative emotional states (ie, threat of cancer diagnosis) relate to preventive medical treatment decisions (ie, colonoscopy intentions). OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate how frequency of health-related Internet use together with perceived threat of a possible (bowel) cancer diagnosis influences intentions to get a colonoscopy. Previous research has shown that people who experience threat preferentially process positive information in an attempt to downregulate the aversive emotional state. The Internet can facilitate this regulatory strategy through allowing self-directed, unrestricted, and thus biased information search. In the context of threat regarding a possible bowel cancer diagnosis, feelings of threat can still be effectively reduced through cancer screening (ie, colonoscopy). We, therefore, predict that in that particular context, feelings of threat should be related to stronger colonoscopy intentions, and that this relationship should be enhanced for people who use the Internet often. METHODS: A longitudinal questionnaire study was conducted among healthy participants who were approaching or just entering the bowel cancer risk group (aged 45-55 years). Perceived threat of a possible (bowel) cancer diagnosis, frequency of health-related Internet use, and intentions to have a colonoscopy were assessed at 2 time points (6-month time lag between the 2 measurement points T1 and T2). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to test whether threat and Internet use at T1 together predicted colonoscopy intentions at T2. RESULTS: In line with our predictions, we found that the threat of a possible (bowel) cancer diagnosis interacted with the frequency of Internet use (both T1) to predict colonoscopy intentions (T2; B=.23, standard error [SE]=0.09, P=.01). For people who used the Internet relatively often (+1 SD), the positive relationship between threat and colonoscopy intentions was significantly stronger (B=.56, SE=0.15, P<.001) compared with participants who used the Internet less often (-1 SD; B=.17, SE=0.09, P=.07). This relationship was unique to Web-based (vs other types of) information search and independent of risk factors (eg, body mass index [BMI] and smoking). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that health-related Internet use can facilitate emotion-regulatory processes. People who feel threatened by a possible (bowel) cancer diagnosis reported stronger colonoscopy intentions, especially when they used the Internet often. We propose that this is because people who experience threat are more likely to search for and process information that allows them to downregulate their aversive emotional state. In the present case of (bowel) cancer prevention, the most effective way to reduce threat is to get screened.

Highly identified power-holders feel responsible: The interplay between social identification and social power within groups.

Power relations affect dynamics within groups. Power-holders' decisions not only determine their personal outcomes, but also the outcomes of others in the group that they control. Yet, power-holders often tend to overlook this responsibility to take care of collective interests. The present research investigated how social identification - with the group to which both the powerful and the powerless belong - alters perceived responsibility among power-holders (and the powerless). Combining research on social power and social identity, we argue that power-holders perceive more responsibility than the powerless when strongly (rather than when weakly) identifying with the group. A study among leaders and an experiment supported this, highlighting that although power-holders are often primarily concerned about personal outcomes, they do feel responsible for considering others' interests when these others are included in the (social) self.