Longitudinal association of gonorrhea and bacterial vaginosis with repeat chlamydia diagnoses among U.S. Army women: a retrospective cohort analysis.

BACKGROUND: Historically, sexually transmitted infections have affected the health of the U.S. military. To determine whether gonorrhea, bacterial vaginosis, genital herpes, and trichomoniasis are predictors of repeat chlamydia diagnoses among U.S. Army women, medical data reported into the Defense Medical Surveillance System during the 2006-2012 period were analyzed. METHODS: For all inpatient and outpatient medical records, the first and second International Classification of Diseases, version 9 (ICD-9) diagnostic positions were reviewed for each chlamydia case to determine the occurrence of repeat diagnoses. The Andersen-Gill regression model, an extension of the Cox model for multiple failure-time data, was used to study associations between predictors and repeat chlamydia diagnoses. RESULTS: Among 28,201 women with a first chlamydia diagnosis, 5145 (18.2%), 1163 (4.1%), 267 (0.9%), and 88 (0.3%) had one, two, three, and four or more repeat diagnoses, respectively. Overall, the incidence of repeat chlamydia was 8.31 cases per 100 person-years, with a median follow-up time of 3.39 years. Gonorrhea (hazard ratio (HR) = 1.58, 95% CI: 1.44-1.73) and bacterial vaginosis (HR = 1.40, 95% CI: 1.09-1.79) were significant predictors for repeat chlamydia. These estimated hazard ratios were attenuated, but remained significant, after controlling for age, race/ethnicity, marital status, and military rank. No significant association was found for genital herpes (HR = 1.13, 95% CI: 0.55-2.29) and trichomoniasis (HR = 1.43, 95% CI: 0.43-4.68). CONCLUSIONS: This large cohort study suggests that gonorrhea and bacterial vaginosis were associated with repeat chlamydia diagnoses among U.S. Army women. These findings can be used in formulating new interventions to prevent repeat chlamydia diagnoses.

Repeat infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae among active duty U.S. Army personnel: a population-based case-series study.

Little information is known on the rate of repeat gonorrhea infection among U.S. military personnel. We analyzed all gonorrhea cases reported to the Defense Medical Surveillance System during 2006-2012 to determine the rate of repeat infection. During the seven-year study period, 17,602 active duty U.S. Army personnel with a first incident gonorrhea infection were reported. Among the 4987 women with a first gonorrhea infection, 14.4% had at least one repeat infection. Among the 12,615 men with a first gonorrhea infection, 13.7% had at least one repeat infection. Overall, the rate of repeat gonorrhea infection was 44.5 and 48.9 per 1000 person-years for women and men, respectively. Service members aged 17-19 years (hazard ratio [HR] for women = 1.51; HR for men = 1.71), African-American personnel (HR for women = 1.26; HR for men = 2.17), junior enlisted personnel (HR for women = 2.64; HR for men = 1.37), and those with one year or less of service (HR for women = 1.23; HR for men = 1.37) were at higher risk of repeat infection. The findings from this study highlight the need to develop targeted prevention initiatives including education, counseling, and retesting to prevent gonorrhea reinfections among U.S. Army personnel.

Association of Bacterial Vaginosis With Chlamydia and Gonorrhea Among Women in the U.S. Army.

INTRODUCTION: Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal condition in women of reproductive age, which has been associated with Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae among commercial sex workers and women attending sexually transmitted infection clinics. Pathogen-specific associations between BV and other sexually transmitted infections among U.S. military women have not been investigated. METHODS: A population-based, nested case-control study was conducted of all incident chlamydia and gonorrhea cases reported to the Defense Medical Surveillance System during 2006-2012. Using a density sampling approach, for each chlamydia or gonorrhea case, 10 age-matched (±1 year) controls were randomly selected from those women who were never diagnosed with these infections. Incidence rate ratios were estimated using conditional logistic regression. Statistical analysis was carried out in December 2015. RESULTS: A total of 37,149 chlamydia cases and 4,987 gonorrhea cases were identified during the study period. Antecedent BV was associated with an increased risk of subsequent chlamydia (adjusted incidence rate ratio=1.51; 95% CI=1.47, 1.55) and gonorrhea (adjusted incidence rate ratio=2.42; 95% CI=2.27, 2.57) infections. For every one additional episode of BV, the risk of acquiring chlamydia and gonorrhea infections increased by 13% and 26%, respectively. A monotonic dose-response relationship was also noted between antecedent BV and subsequent chlamydia and gonorrhea infection. In addition, an effect modification on the additive scale was found between BV and African-American race for gonorrhea, but not for chlamydia. CONCLUSIONS: Among U.S. Army women, antecedent BV is associated with an increased risk of subsequent chlamydia and gonorrhea infection.

Bacterial vaginosis: a synthesis of the literature on etiology, prevalence, risk factors, and relationship with chlamydia and gonorrhea infections.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal disorder in women of reproductive age. Since the initial work of Leopoldo in 1953 and Gardner and Dukes in 1955, researchers have not been able to identify the causative etiologic agent of BV. There is increasing evidence, however, that BV occurs when Lactobacillus spp., the predominant species in healthy vaginal flora, are replaced by anaerobic bacteria, such as Gardenella vaginalis, Mobiluncus curtisii, M. mulieris, other anaerobic bacteria and/or Mycoplasma hominis. Worldwide, it estimated that 20-30 % of women of reproductive age attending sexually transmitted infection (STI) clinics suffer from BV, and that its prevalence can be as high as 50-60 % in high-risk populations (e.g., those who practice commercial sex work (CSW). Epidemiological data show that women are more likely to report BV if they: 1) have had a higher number of lifetime sexual partners; 2) are unmarried; 3) have engaged in their first intercourse at a younger age; 4) have engaged in CSW, and 5) practice regular douching. In the past decade, several studies have provided evidence on the contribution of sexual activity to BV. However, it is difficult to state that BV is a STI without being able to identify the etiologic agent. BV has also emerged as a public health problem due to its association with other STIs, including: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG). The most recent evidence on the association between BV and CT/NG infection comes from two secondary analyses of cohort data conducted among women attending STI clinics. Based on these studies, women with BV had a 1.8 and 1.9-fold increased risk for NG and CT infection, respectively. Taken together, BV is likely a risk factor or at least an important contributor to subsequent NG or CT infection in high-risk women. Additional research is required to determine whether this association is also present in other low-risk sexually active populations, such as among women in the US military. It is essential to conduct large scale cross-sectional or population-based case-control studies to investigate the role of BV as a risk factor for CT/NG infections. These studies could lead to the development of interventions aimed at reducing the burden associated with bacterial STIs worldwide.

Short communication: Investigation of incident HIV infections among U.S. army soldiers deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq, 2001-2007.

The U.S. Army initiated an investigation in response to observations of a possible increase in HIV incidence among soldiers deployed to combat. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected U.S. Army soldiers are not eligible to deploy. Combat presents a health hazard to HIV-infected soldiers and they pose a threat to the safety of the battlefield blood supply and their contacts. All soldiers are routinely screened for HIV every 2 years and those who deploy are also screened both prior to and after deployment. Seroconversion rates were estimated for all soldiers who deployed to Afghanistan or Iraq in the period 2001-2007 and all active duty soldiers who did not. Seroconverters with an estimated date of infection, based on calculation of the midpoint between the last seronegative and first seropositive test date, that was either before or during deployment were eligible for inclusion. Confidential interviews and medical record reviews were conducted to determine the most likely time, geographic location, and mode of infection. Reposed predeployment samples were tested for HIV ribonucleic acid. The HIV seroconversion rate among all soldiers who deployed was less than the rate among those who did not deploy: 1.04 and 1.42 per 10,000 person-years, respectively. Among 48 cases, most were determined to have been infected in the United States or Germany and prior to deployment (n=20, 42%) or during rest and relaxation leave (n=13, 27%). Seven seronegative acute infections were identified in the predeployment period. Subtype was determined for 40 individuals; all were subtype B infections. All were acquired through sexual contact. These findings can inform development of preventive interventions and refinement of existing screening policy to further reduce HIV-infected deployed soldier person time.

Medical encounter characteristics of HIV seroconverters in the US Army and Air Force, 2000­2004.

BACKGROUND AND METHODS: Active duty US Army and Air Force military personnel undergo mandatory biennial HIV antibody screening. We compared pre- and post-HIV seroconversion health status by conducting a case-control study, which evaluated all medical encounters and sociodemographic factors among incident HIV seroconverters and HIV-negative controls from June 2000 through February 2004. RESULTS: A total of 274 HIV seroconverters and 6205 HIV-negative personnel were included. In multivariate analysis restricted to male personnel (cases = 261, controls = 5801), single marital status (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 14.37), clinical indicators or symptoms within four years of HIV diagnosis (AOR = 6.22), black race (AOR = 5.88), nonindicator clinical syndromes within 2 years of HIV diagnosis (AOR = 3.31), any mental disorder within 4 years of HIV diagnosis (AOR = 3.04), increasing service-connected time (AOR = 1.69), and older age (AOR = 1.12) were associated with HIV diagnosis among males. A prior history of a sexually transmitted infection (STI) was associated with post-HIV seroconversion STI (OR(M-H) = 4.10). Similarly, a prior history of mental disorder was associated with post-HIV seroconversion mental disorder (OR(M-H) = 4.98). Forty-seven (18%) male cases were hospitalized at least once after HIV diagnosis; infectious diseases, and mental disorders made up 53% of initial admissions. CONCLUSIONS: HIV seroconversion was associated with increased health care-seeking behavior, STIs, and mental disorders, some of which may be amenable to screening. The higher STI rate after HIV diagnosis may partially be a consequence of monitoring, but secondary transmission of STI and possibly HIV require further definition and subsequent tailored preventive interventions.

Transfusion-transmissible viral infections among US military recipients of whole blood and platelets during Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom.

BACKGROUND: Current US military clinical practice guidelines permit emergency transfusions of non-Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-compliant freshly collected blood products in theaters of war. This investigation aimed to characterize the risks of transfusion-transmitted infections (TTIs) associated with battlefield transfusions of non-FDA-compliant blood products. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: US Service members who received emergency transfusion products in Iraq and Afghanistan (March 1, 2002-September 30, 2007) were tested for hepatitis C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections using reposed pre- and posttransfusion sera. Selected regions of viral genomes from epidemiologically linked infected recipients and their donors were sequenced and compared. RESULTS: Of 761 US Service members who received emergency transfusion products, 475 were tested for HCV, 472 for HIV, and 469 for HBV. One transfusion-transmitted HCV infection (incidence rate of 2.1/1000 persons) was identified. The pretransfusion numbers (prevalence per 1000 persons) were HCV-four (8/1000), HIV-zero (0/1000), chronic HBV-two (4 /1000), and naturally immune (antibody to HBV core antigen)-nine (19/1000). CONCLUSION: One HCV TTI was determined to be associated with emergency blood product use. The pretransfusion HCV and HBV prevalence in transfusion recipients, themselves members of the potential donor population, indicates better characterization of the deployed force's actual donor population, and further investigations of the TTI prevalence in these donors are needed. These data will inform countermeasure development and clinical decision making.

HIV infection among U.S. Army and Air Force military personnel: sociodemographic and genotyping analysis.

Since 1985, the U.S. Department of Defense has periodically screened all military personnel for HIV allowing for the monitoring of the infection in this dynamic cohort population. A nested case-control study was performed to study sociodemographics, overseas assignment, and molecular analysis of HIV. Cases were newly identified HIV infections among U.S. Army and Air Force military personnel from 2000 to 2004. Controls were frequency matched to cases by gender and date of case first positive HIV screening test. Genotyping analysis was performed using high-throughput screening assays and partial genome sequencing. HIV was significantly associated with black race [odds ratio (OR) = 6.65], single marital status (OR = 4.45), and age (OR per year = 1.07). Ninety-seven percent were subtype B and 3% were non-B subtypes (A3, CRF01_AE, A/C recombinant, G, CRF02_AG). Among cases, overseas assignment in the period at risk prior to their first HIV-positive test was associated with non-B HIV subtype infection (OR = 8.44). Black and single military personnel remain disproportionately affected by HIV infection. Most non-B HIV subtypes were associated with overseas assignment. Given the increased frequency and length of assignments, and the expanding HIV genetic diversity observed in this population, there is a need for active HIV genotyping surveillance and a need to reinforce primary HIV prevention efforts.

Short communication: HIV type 1 genetic diversity among tea plantation workers in Kericho, Kenya.

In preparation for HIV-1 vaccine trials in Kenya, 2801 study volunteers, from a tea plantation in Kericho, were recruited as part of a prospective vaccine cohort development study. Cryopreserved plasma was available from 401 HIV-positive volunteers, and was the source of viral RNA for genotyping by the multiregion hybridization assay (MHA). Logistic regression was performed to determine association of risk factors and HIV-1 recombinant and dual infections. At baseline, HIV-1 subtype A was the dominant circulating pure subtype (56%), followed by subtype D (10%) and C (5%). Recombinant HIV-1 strains accounted for almost one-third of all infections (29%), with 7% infected with a dual strain of the HIV-1 variants described. A higher number of HIV-1 recombinant and dual infections was observed among volunteers who were 18-24 and 25-29 years of age, affiliated with the Luo tribe, had been married two or more times, reported not being circumcised, and had STI symptoms in the past 6 months. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) significantly associated with HIV-1 recombinant and dual infection were age difference from current spouse (5-9 years; AOR = 2.5, 95% CI = 1.2-5.3 and > or = 10 years; AOR = 3.1, 95% CI = 1.5-6.4) and reported STI symptoms in the past 6 months (AOR = 4.8, 95% CI = 2.0-11.6), respectively. In conclusion, our results suggest that there is considerable heterogeneity with respect to HIV-1 subtype diversity in this population that should be considered in the planning for future vaccine trials in the region.

Sexual practices, drug use behaviors, and prevalence of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C, and HTLV-1/2 in immigrant and non-immigrant female sex workers in Argentina.

OBJECTIVE: To study socio-demographics, sexual practices, drug use behaviors, and prevalences of HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B and C, HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 in immigrant (foreigner) and non-immigrant (local/native) female sex workers (FSW). DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study in immigrant and non-immigrant FSW living in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Participants were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire. RESULTS: A total of 625 FSW were enrolled, of whom 169 (27%) were immigrant FSW from Paraguay, the Dominican Republic, Brazil, Peru, and Uruguay. The prevalence of syphilis and hepatitis C was significantly higher among Argentinean FSW than among immigrant FSW. However, hepatitis B prevalence was higher among immigrant FSW. Adjusted risk factor analysis comparing immigrant FSW with Argentinean FSW indicated that marital status (single), occupation (none), fee per sex act (

Reference intervals in healthy adult Ugandan blood donors and their impact on conducting international vaccine trials.

BACKGROUND: Clinical trials are increasingly being conducted internationally. In order to ensure enrollment of healthy participants and proper safety evaluation of vaccine candidates, established reference intervals for clinical tests are required in the target population. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We report a reference range study conducted in Ugandan adult blood bank donors establishing reference intervals for hematology and clinical chemistry parameters. Several differences were observed when compared to previously established values from the United States, most notably in neutrophils and eosinophils. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: In a recently conducted vaccine trial in Uganda, 31 percent (n = 69) of volunteers screened (n = 223) were excluded due to hematologic abnormalities. If local reference ranges had been employed, 83% of those screened out due to these abnormalities could have been included in the study, drastically reducing workload and cost associated with the screening process. In addition, toxicity tables used in vaccine and drug trial safety evaluations may need adjustment as some clinical reference ranges determined in this study overlap with grade 1 and grade 2 adverse events.

Reference ranges for the clinical laboratory derived from a rural population in Kericho, Kenya.

The conduct of Phase I/II HIV vaccine trials internationally necessitates the development of region-specific clinical reference ranges for trial enrollment and participant monitoring. A population based cohort of adults in Kericho, Kenya, a potential vaccine trial site, allowed development of clinical laboratory reference ranges. Lymphocyte immunophenotyping was performed on 1293 HIV seronegative study participants. Hematology and clinical chemistry were performed on up to 1541 cohort enrollees. The ratio of males to females was 1.9:1. Means, medians and 95% reference ranges were calculated and compared with those from other nations. The median CD4+ T cell count for the group was 810 cells/microl. There were significant gender differences for both red and white blood cell parameters. Kenyan subjects had lower median hemoglobin concentrations (9.5 g/dL; range 6.7-11.1) and neutrophil counts (1850 cells/microl; range 914-4715) compared to North Americans. Kenyan clinical chemistry reference ranges were comparable to those from the USA, with the exception of the upper limits for bilirubin and blood urea nitrogen, which were 2.3-fold higher and 1.5-fold lower, respectively. This study is the first to assess clinical reference ranges for a highland community in Kenya and highlights the need to define clinical laboratory ranges from the national community not only for clinical research but also care and treatment.

Geographic mapping of HIV infection among civilian applicants for United States military service.

We assessed the geographic distribution of HIV infection among civilian applicants for US military service. High smoothed HIV prevalences were observed among white applicants in California, Texas, Florida, New York, and New Jersey, and among African-American applicants in New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Washington DC, North and South Carolina, Florida, and California. Three HIV spatial clusters were found among whites: New York/New Jersey, southern California, and in south and central Texas. Among African-Americans, three HIV spatial clusters were found: New York/New Jersey, Washington DC/Virginia, and south and central California. The South accounted for a significant proportion of HIV-infected African-American applicants.

The protective effect of circumcision on HIV incidence in rural low-risk men circumcised predominantly by traditional circumcisers in Kenya: two-year follow-up of the Kericho HIV Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Three randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated that male circumcision prevents female-to-male HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa. Data from prospective cohort studies are helpful in considering generalizability of RCT results to populations with unique epidemiologic/cultural characteristics. METHODS: Prospective observational cohort sub-analysis. A total of 1378 men were evaluated after 2 years of follow-up. Baseline sociodemographic and behavioral/HIV risk characteristics were compared between 270 uncircumcised and 1108 circumcised men. HIV incidence rates (per 100 person-years) were calculated, and Cox proportional hazards regression analyses estimated hazard rate ratios (HRs). RESULTS: Of the men included in this study, 80.4% were circumcised; 73.9% were circumcised by traditional circumcisers. Circumcision was associated with tribal affiliation, high school education, fewer marriages, and smaller age difference between spouses (P < 0.05). After 2 years of follow-up, there were 30 HIV incident cases (17 in circumcised and 13 in uncircumcised men). Two-year HIV incidence rates were 0.79 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.46 to 1.25) for circumcised men and 2.48 (95% CI: 1.33 to 4.21) for uncircumcised men corresponding to a HR = 0.31 (95% CI: 0.15 to 0.64). In one model controlling for sociodemographic factors, the HR increased and became non-significant (HR = 0.55; 95% CI: 0.20 to 1.49). CONCLUSIONS: Circumcision by traditional circumcisers offers protection from HIV infection in adult men in rural Kenya. Data from well-designed prospective cohort studies in populations with unique cultural characteristics can supplement RCT data in recommending public health policy.

Higher HIV-1 incidence and genetic complexity along main roads in Rakai District, Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between the incidence of HIV-1 infection and the genetic complexity of HIV-1 strains in 2 geographic strata within Rakai District, Uganda. METHODS: Study volunteers with recent HIV-1 infections during the period 1997 through 2003 were recruited from 10 communities that were geographically stratified as a main road trading center (n = 5) or a secondary road trading village (n = 5). Cryopreserved plasma was available from 384 volunteers and was the source of viral RNA for genotyping by the multiregion hybridization assay. Hazard ratios (HRs) for a single HIV subtype, a recombinant form, or dual infection for gender and geographic strata were obtained using Cox proportional hazards analysis. RESULTS: The HIV-1 incidence rate during the period 1999 through 2002 was 1.3 per 100 person-years (PYs) in the trading centers and 1.1 per 100 PYs in the trading villages. The HR for infection with an HIV-1 recombinant strain in trading centers relative to trading villages was 2.3 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.0 to 6.7). Among those who changed residence between village strata, the HR for a recombinant HIV-1 infection was 8.1 (95% CI: 0.4 to 47.7). CONCLUSIONS: HIV-1 incidence and genetic complexity are associated with geographic strata and population mobility in Rakai District and are important variables to be considered in planning and recruitment for vaccine trials.

HIV incidence trends among white and african-american active duty United States Army personnel (1986-2003).

OBJECTIVE: To analyze HIV incidence rate (IR) trends among white and African-American active duty US Army personnel between 1986 and 2003. METHODS: Joinpoint regression was applied to identify time periods when significant changes in HIV IRs occurred, along with the corresponding annual percentage changes (APCs). RESULTS: African-Americans had a higher IR than white personnel (0.34/1,000 vs. 0.07/1,000; P < 0.001). Among white personnel, 2 significant time periods of changing HIV IRs were found: between 1986 and 1989 (APC = -31.1; P = 0.006) and between 1989 and 2003 (APC = -5.7; P = 0.003). Among African-Americans, a significant decline in HIV IRs was observed only between 1986 and 1991 (APC = -19.4; P < 0.001). This study revealed that the HIV IRs seem to have increased in 2 African-American groups: unmarried personnel and health care professionals. CONCLUSION: This cohort study (1,280 incident HIV infections among 1.5 million persons with 8.4 million person-years of follow-up) provides invaluable information on HIV trends in the United States Army. Despite an overall decline in HIV IRs, certain subpopulation among African-American personnel were observed to have increasing HIV IRs. Future research is needed to identify the current behavioral risk factors associated with HIV infection among US Army personnel.

First case of HIV Type 1 subtype F among men who have sex with men in Colombia.

To study the molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) strains among men who have sex with men (MSM), the main high-risk group for HIV infection in Colombia, 113 HIV-positive MSM subjects recruited in Bogotá during the year 2002 were genotyped. By heteroduplex mobility assay (env HMA) all samples were classified as subtype B. Partial sequencing of the protease and the reverse transcriptase (Pro/RT) regions performed on a random subset of 10 samples revealed that nine were classified as subtype B, and one sample was subtype F. The specimen that is subtype F in pol and subtype B in env is likely to be is either a recombinant or a dual infection. In this study, we identify the HIV F subtype for the first time in Colombia.

Epidemiology of HIV-1 infection in agricultural plantation residents in Kericho, Kenya: preparation for vaccine feasibility studies.

A cross-sectional study was performed to determine the prevalence and risk factors for HIV-1 infection among agricultural plantation residents in Kericho, Kenya. Volunteers were recruited, interviewed, and phlebotomized for HIV-1 serologic testing. Sex-specific adjusted odds ratios were estimated using logistic regression. The overall HIV-1 prevalence was 9.9% (81/820), with prevalence in women more than twice that in men (17.4% vs 8.0%, P=0.001). Among men, elevated HIV-1 prevalence was seen with increasing age, peaking in those older than 30 years (10.3%), marriage (10.4%), Luo tribe affiliation (23.5%), employment (8.9%), travel (11.0%), and being uncircumcised (29.2%). Among women, elevated HIV-1 prevalence was seen in those with no formal education (36.8%) and those who received goods in exchange for sex (36.0%). More than 97% of volunteers expressed a willingness to participate in future HIV-1 studies requiring semiannual visits. HIV prevention efforts have been implemented, along with further research to characterize this population for future cohort feasibility studies and HIV-1 vaccine efficacy trials.

Trends in HIV prevalence among white and African-American civilian applicants for United States Military Service, 1985 to 2003.

Data from 5,699,590 white and African-American civilian applicants who applied for service in the US military between 1985 and 2003 were used to analyze HIV prevalence trends. The overall HIV prevalence was 0.72/1000, which declined from 2.63/1000 in 1985 to 0.29/1000 in 1995, after which it remained stable until 2003 (0.30/1000). Larger and more significant declines in annual HIV prevalences were observed among the 4.5 million white applicants (-15.7% per year) compared with the 1.2 million African-American applicants (-10.0% per year). The HIV prevalence decline was also greater among male applicants (-12.4% per year) than female applicants (-7.1% per year). In the most recent 4 years study period, HIV prevalences increased among white applicants 25 to 29 years of age among African-American applicants 30 years of age or older. These data suggest that despite the overall consistent decreases in HIV prevalence from the 1980s to the late 1990s, an increase in HIV prevalence has taken place older African-American and white subgroups in more recent years.

Molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals in Medellin, Colombia.

To study the molecular epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains in Medellín, Colombia, 115 HIV-1-positive individuals who were recruited from an HIV outpatient hospital (Universitario San Vicente de Paul) during the period from July 2001 to January 2002 were genotyped. All samples were analyzed by envelope heteroduplex mobility assay and found to be subtype B. Twenty-four samples were randomly selected for sequencing of the protease and the reverse transcriptase regions; all isolates were found to be subtype B. Phylogenetic analysis of seven nearly full-length genomes showed that all samples were subtype B. This study shows that the HIV epidemic in Colombia continues to be dominated by the subtype B virus. The predominance of subtype B genotypes of HIV-1 strains in Medellín resembles what is seen in the nearby countries of Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela.