Cutting Edge: PDGF-DD Binding to NKp44 Costimulates TLR9 Signaling and Proinflammatory Cytokine Secretion in Human Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells.

NKp44 is a human receptor originally found on activated NK cells, group 1 and group 3 innate lymphoid cells that binds dimers of platelet-derived growth factor D (PDGF-DD). NKp44 is also expressed on tissue plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs), but NKp44-PDGF-DD interaction on PDCs remains unstudied. Engagement of NKp44 with PDGF-DD in vitro enhanced PDC secretion of IFN-α, TNF, and IL-6 in response to the TLR9 ligand CpG-ODN, but not TLR7/8 ligands. In tissues, PDCs were found in close contact with PDGF-DD-expressing cells in the high endothelial venules and epithelium of tonsils, melanomas, and skin lesions infected with Molluscum contagiosum. Recombinant PDGF-DD enhanced the serum IFN-α response to systemic HSV-1 infection in a humanized mouse model. We conclude that NKp44 integrates with TLR9 signaling to enhance PDC cytokine production. These findings may have bearings for immune responses to TLR9-based adjuvants, therapy for tumors expressing PDGF-DD, and infections with DNA viruses that induce PDGF-DD expression to enhance viral spread.

STIM1 thermosensitivity defines the optimal preference temperature for warm sensation in mice.

Mammals possess a remarkable ability to sense subtle temperature deviations from the thermoneutral skin temperature of ~33 °C, which ensures precise warm sensation. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here we show that STIM1, an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resident transmembrane protein that responds to both ER Ca2+ depletion and heat, mediates temperature-induced Ca2+ influx in skin keratinocytes via coupling to Orai Ca2+ channels in plasma membrane. Behaviorally, the keratinocyte-specific knockout of STIM1 shifts the optimal preference temperature (OPT) of mice from ~32 °C to ~34 °C, resulting in a strikingly reversed preference between 32 °C and 34 °C. Importantly, the thermally inactive STIM1-ΔK knock-in mice show altered OPT and warm preference behaviors as well, demonstrating the requirement of STIM1 thermosensitivity for warm sensation. Furthermore, the wild-type and mutant mice prefer temperatures closer to their respective OPTs, but poorly distinguish temperatures that are equally but oppositely deviated from their OPTs. Mechanistically, keratinocyte STIM1 affects the in vivo warm responses of sensory neurons by likely involving TRPA1 as a downstream transduction channel. Collectively, our data suggest that STIM1 serves as a novel in vivo thermosensor in keratinocytes to define the OPT, which might be utilized as a peripheral reference temperature for precise warm sensation.

Guide Swap enables genome-scale pooled CRISPR-Cas9 screening in human primary cells.

CRISPR-Cas9 screening allows genome-wide interrogation of gene function. Currently, to achieve the high and uniform Cas9 expression desirable for screening, one needs to engineer stable and clonal Cas9-expressing cells-an approach that is not applicable in human primary cells. Guide Swap permits genome-scale pooled CRISPR-Cas9 screening in human primary cells by exploiting the unexpected finding that editing by lentivirally delivered, targeted guide RNAs (gRNAs) occurs efficiently when Cas9 is introduced in complex with nontargeting gRNA. We validated Guide Swap in depletion and enrichment screens in CD4+ T cells. Next, we implemented Guide Swap in a model of ex vivo hematopoiesis, and identified known and previously unknown regulators of CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) expansion. We anticipate that this platform will be broadly applicable to other challenging cell types, and thus will enable discovery in previously inaccessible but biologically relevant human primary cell systems.

Induction of muscle stem cell quiescence by the secreted niche factor Oncostatin M.

The balance between stem cell quiescence and proliferation in skeletal muscle is tightly controlled, but perturbed in a variety of disease states. Despite progress in identifying activators of stem cell proliferation, the niche factor(s) responsible for quiescence induction remain unclear. Here we report an in vivo imaging-based screen which identifies Oncostatin M (OSM), a member of the interleukin-6 family of cytokines, as a potent inducer of muscle stem cell (MuSC, satellite cell) quiescence. OSM is produced by muscle fibers, induces reversible MuSC cell cycle exit, and maintains stem cell regenerative capacity as judged by serial transplantation. Conditional OSM receptor deletion in satellite cells leads to stem cell depletion and impaired regeneration following injury. These results identify Oncostatin M as a secreted niche factor responsible for quiescence induction, and for the first time establish a direct connection between induction of quiescence, stemness, and transplantation potential in solid organ stem cells.

Common PIEZO1 Allele in African Populations Causes RBC Dehydration and Attenuates Plasmodium Infection.

Hereditary xerocytosis is thought to be a rare genetic condition characterized by red blood cell (RBC) dehydration with mild hemolysis. RBC dehydration is linked to reduced Plasmodium infection in vitro; however, the role of RBC dehydration in protection against malaria in vivo is unknown. Most cases of hereditary xerocytosis are associated with gain-of-function mutations in PIEZO1, a mechanically activated ion channel. We engineered a mouse model of hereditary xerocytosis and show that Plasmodium infection fails to cause experimental cerebral malaria in these mice due to the action of Piezo1 in RBCs and in T cells. Remarkably, we identified a novel human gain-of-function PIEZO1 allele, E756del, present in a third of the African population. RBCs from individuals carrying this allele are dehydrated and display reduced Plasmodium infection in vitro. The existence of a gain-of-function PIEZO1 at such high frequencies is surprising and suggests an association with malaria resistance.

Natural Killer Cells Control Tumor Growth by Sensing a Growth Factor.

Many tumors produce platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-DD, which promotes cellular proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, stromal reaction, and angiogenesis through autocrine and paracrine PDGFRß signaling. By screening a secretome library, we found that the human immunoreceptor NKp44, encoded by NCR2 and expressed on natural killer (NK) cells and innate lymphoid cells, recognizes PDGF-DD. PDGF-DD engagement of NKp44 triggered NK cell secretion of interferon gamma (IFN)-γ and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) that induced tumor cell growth arrest. A distinctive transcriptional signature of PDGF-DD-induced cytokines and the downregulation of tumor cell-cycle genes correlated with NCR2 expression and greater survival in glioblastoma. NKp44 expression in mouse NK cells controlled the dissemination of tumors expressing PDGF-DD more effectively than control mice, an effect enhanced by blockade of the inhibitory receptor CD96 or CpG-oligonucleotide treatment. Thus, while cancer cell production of PDGF-DD supports tumor growth and stromal reaction, it concomitantly activates innate immune responses to tumor expansion.

The microprotein Minion controls cell fusion and muscle formation.

Although recent evidence has pointed to the existence of small open reading frame (smORF)-encoded microproteins in mammals, their function remains to be determined. Skeletal muscle development requires fusion of mononuclear progenitors to form multinucleated myotubes, a critical but poorly understood process. Here we report the identification of Minion (microprotein inducer of fusion), a smORF encoding an essential skeletal muscle specific microprotein. Myogenic progenitors lacking Minion differentiate normally but fail to form syncytial myotubes, and Minion-deficient mice die perinatally and demonstrate a marked reduction in fused muscle fibres. The fusogenic activity of Minion is conserved in the human orthologue, and co-expression of Minion and the transmembrane protein Myomaker is sufficient to induce cellular fusion accompanied by rapid cytoskeletal rearrangement, even in non-muscle cells. These findings establish Minion as a novel microprotein required for muscle development, and define a two-component programme for the induction of mammalian cell fusion. Moreover, these data also significantly expand the known functions of smORF-encoded microproteins.

Inhibition of the Inositol Kinase Itpkb Augments Calcium Signaling in Lymphocytes and Reveals a Novel Strategy to Treat Autoimmune Disease.

Emerging approaches to treat immune disorders target positive regulatory kinases downstream of antigen receptors with small molecule inhibitors. Here we provide evidence for an alternative approach in which inhibition of the negative regulatory inositol kinase Itpkb in mature T lymphocytes results in enhanced intracellular calcium levels following antigen receptor activation leading to T cell death. Using Itpkb conditional knockout mice and LMW Itpkb inhibitors these studies reveal that Itpkb through its product IP4 inhibits the Orai1/Stim1 calcium channel on lymphocytes. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic deletion of Itpkb results in elevated intracellular Ca2+ and induction of FasL and Bim resulting in T cell apoptosis. Deletion of Itpkb or treatment with Itpkb inhibitors blocks T-cell dependent antibody responses in vivo and prevents T cell driven arthritis in rats. These data identify Itpkb as an essential mediator of T cell activation and suggest Itpkb inhibition as a novel approach to treat autoimmune disease.

Inhibition of c-Kit is not required for reversal of hyperglycemia by imatinib in NOD mice.

AIM/HYPOTHESIS: Recent studies indicate that tyrosine kinase inhibitors, including imatinib, can reverse hyperglycemia in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, a model of type 1 diabetes (T1D). Imatinib inhibits c-Abl, c-Kit, and PDGFRs. Next-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors for T1D treatment should maintain activities required for efficacy while sparing inhibition of targets that might otherwise lead to adverse events. In this study, we investigated the contribution of c-Kit inhibition by imatinib in reversal of hyperglycemia in NOD mice. METHODS: The T670I mutation in c-Kit, which confers imatinib resistance, was engineered into the mouse genome and bred onto the NOD background. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from NOD.c-Kit(T670I) mice and NOD.c-Kit(wt) littermates were expanded in the presence or absence of imatinib to verify imatinib resistance of the c-Kit(T670I) allele. Diabetic mice were treated with imatinib at the onset of hyperglycemia for three weeks, and blood glucose was monitored. RESULTS: In vitro expansion of HSCs from NOD.c-Kit(wt) mice was sensitive to imatinib, while expansion of HSCs from NOD.c-Kit(T670I) mice was insensitive to imatinib. However, in vivo treatment with imatinib lowered blood glucose levels in both strains of mice. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The HSC experiment confirmed that, in NOD.c-Kit(T670I) mice, c-Kit is resistant to imatinib. As both NOD.c-Kit(T670I) and NOD.c-Kit(wt) mice responded comparably to imatinib, c-Kit inhibition does not substantially contribute to the efficacy of imatinib in T1D. Thus, we conclude that inhibition of c-Kit is not required in next-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors for T1D treatment, and may be selected against to improve the safety profile.

Identification of the Plasmodium berghei resistance locus 9 linked to survival on chromosome 9.

BACKGROUND: One of the main causes of mortality from severe malaria in Plasmodium falciparum infections is cerebral malaria (CM). An important host genetic component determines the susceptibility of an individual to develop CM or to clear the infection and become semi-immune. As such, the identification of genetic loci associated with susceptibility or resistance may serve to modulate disease severity. METHODOLOGY: The Plasmodium berghei mouse model for experimental cerebral malaria (ECM) reproduces several disease symptoms seen in human CM, and two different phenotypes, a susceptible (FVB/NJ) and a resistant mouse strain (DBA/2J), were examined. RESULTS: FVB/NJ mice died from infection within ten days, whereas DBA/2J mice showed a gender bias: males survived on average nineteen days and females either died early with signs of ECM or survived for up to three weeks. A comparison of brain pathology between FVB/NJ and DBA/2J showed no major differences with regard to brain haemorrhages or the number of parasites and CD3+ cells in the microvasculature. However, significant differences were found in the peripheral blood of infected mice: For example resistant DBA/2J mice had significantly higher numbers of circulating basophils than did FVB/NJ mice on day seven. Analysis of the F2 offspring from a cross of DBA/2J and FVB/NJ mice mapped the genetic locus of the underlying survival trait to chromosome 9 with a Lod score of 4.9. This locus overlaps with two previously identified resistance loci (char1 and pymr) from a blood stage malaria model. CONCLUSIONS: Survival best distinguishes malaria infections between FVB/NJ and DBA/2J mice. The importance of char1 and pymr on chromosome 9 in malaria resistance to P. berghei was confirmed. In addition there was an association of basophil numbers with survival.

Immortalized clones of fibroblastic reticular cells activate virus-specific T cells during virus infection.

Fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) are lymphoid stromal cells essential to T-cell migration and survival. Although FRCs are targets of multiple viral infections, little is known about their role during infection due to the cells' scarcity and difficulty in isolating in vivo. To initiate studies of interactions among FRCs, viruses, and immune cells, we isolated and immortalized CD45(-)gp38(+)CD35(-)CD31(-)CD44(+)VCAM1(+) cell lines from C57BL/6 mice designated as immortalized FRC. Using these cloned cell lines, we have established that FRCs express the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) II molecule, a factor necessary for stimulation of CD4(+) T cells thought to be expressed primarily by antigen-presenting cells, along with other T-cell stimulatory ligands in an IFN-γ-dependent manner. In this environment, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV)-infected iFRCs activated naive LCMV-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells while limiting expansion of effector LCMV-specific T cells. Thus, FRCs effectively presented antigen along with activating signals during viral infection using both MHC I and MHC II molecules, illustrating a previously undescribed interaction with CD4(+) T cells and indicating a unique role for FRCs.

Oxysterols direct immune cell migration via EBI2.

Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 2 (EBI2, also known as GPR183) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that is required for humoral immune responses; polymorphisms in the receptor have been associated with inflammatory autoimmune diseases. The natural ligand for EBI2 has been unknown. Here we describe the identification of 7α,25-dihydroxycholesterol (also called 7α,25-OHC or 5-cholesten-3ß,7α,25-triol) as a potent and selective agonist of EBI2. Functional activation of human EBI2 by 7α,25-OHC and closely related oxysterols was verified by monitoring second messenger readouts and saturable, high-affinity radioligand binding. Furthermore, we find that 7α,25-OHC and closely related oxysterols act as chemoattractants for immune cells expressing EBI2 by directing cell migration in vitro and in vivo. A critical enzyme required for the generation of 7α,25-OHC is cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H). Similar to EBI2 receptor knockout mice, mice deficient in CH25H fail to position activated B cells within the spleen to the outer follicle and mount a reduced plasma cell response after an immune challenge. This demonstrates that CH25H generates EBI2 biological activity in vivo and indicates that the EBI2-oxysterol signalling pathway has an important role in the adaptive immune response.

Loss of CD4 T-cell-dependent tolerance to proteins with modified amino acids.

The site-specific incorporation of the unnatural amino acid p-nitrophenylalanine (pNO(2)Phe) into autologous proteins overcomes self-tolerance and induces a long-lasting polyclonal IgG antibody response. To determine the molecular mechanism by which such simple modifications to amino acids are able to induce autoantibodies, we incorporated pNO(2)Phe, sulfotyrosine (SO(3)Tyr), and 3-nitrotyrosine (3NO(2)Tyr) at specific sites in murine TNF-α and EGF. A subset of TNF-α and EGF mutants with these nitrated or sulfated residues is highly immunogenic and induces antibodies against the unaltered native protein. Analysis of the immune response to the TNF-α mutants in different strains of mice that are congenic for the H-2 locus indicates that CD4 T-cell recognition is necessary for autoantibody production. IFN-γ ELISPOT analysis of CD4 T cells isolated from vaccinated mice demonstrates that peptides with mutated residues, but not the wild-type residues, are recognized. Immunization of these peptides revealed that a CD4 repertoire exists for the mutated peptides but is lacking for the wild-type peptides and that the mutated residues are processed, loaded, and presented on the I-A(b) molecule. Overall, our results illustrate that, although autoantibodies are generated against the endogenous protein, CD4 cells are activated through a neo-epitope recognition mechanism. Therefore, tolerance is maintained at a CD4 level but is broken at the level of antibody production. Finally, these results suggest that naturally occurring posttranslational modifications such as nitration may play a role in antibody-mediated autoimmune disorders.

TLE3 is a dual-function transcriptional coregulator of adipogenesis.

PPARγ and Wnt signaling are central positive and negative regulators of adipogenesis, respectively. Here we identify the groucho family member TLE3 as a transcriptional integrator of the PPARγ and Wnt pathways. TLE3 is a direct target of PPARγ that participates in a feed-forward loop during adipocyte differentiation. TLE3 enhances PPARγ activity and functions synergistically with PPARγ on its target promoters to stimulate adipogenesis. At the same time, induction of TLE3 during differentiation provides a mechanism for termination of Wnt signaling. TLE3 antagonizes TCF4 activation by ß-catenin in preadipocytes, thereby inhibiting Wnt target gene expression and reversing ß-catenin-dependent repression of adipocyte gene expression. Transgenic expression of TLE3 in adipose tissue in vivo mimics the effects of PPARγ agonist and ameliorates high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance. Our data suggest that TLE3 acts as a dual-function switch, driving the formation of both active and repressive transcriptional complexes that facilitate the adipogenic program.

Deletion of the potassium channel Kv12.2 causes hippocampal hyperexcitability and epilepsy.

We found the voltage-gated K+ channel Kv12.2 to be a potent regulator of excitability in hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Genetic deletion and pharmacologic block of Kv12.2 substantially reduced the firing threshold of these neurons. Kv12.2-/- (also known as Kcnh3-/-) mice showed signs of persistent neuronal hyperexcitability including frequent interictal spiking, spontaneous seizures and increased sensitivity to the chemoconvulsant pentylenetetrazol.

Autoimmune-associated PTPN22 R620W variation reduces phosphorylation of lymphoid phosphatase on an inhibitory tyrosine residue.

A missense C1858T single nucleotide polymorphism in the PTPN22 gene recently emerged as a major risk factor for human autoimmunity. PTPN22 encodes the lymphoid tyrosine phosphatase (LYP), which forms a complex with the kinase Csk and is a critical negative regulator of signaling through the T cell receptor. The C1858T single nucleotide polymorphism results in the LYP-R620W variation within the LYP-Csk interaction motif. LYP-W620 exhibits a greatly reduced interaction with Csk and is a gain-of-function inhibitor of signaling. Here we show that LYP constitutively interacts with its substrate Lck in a Csk-dependent manner. T cell receptor-induced phosphorylation of LYP by Lck on an inhibitory tyrosine residue releases tonic inhibition of signaling by LYP. The R620W variation disrupts the interaction between Lck and LYP, leading to reduced phosphorylation of LYP, which ultimately contributes to gain-of-function inhibition of T cell signaling.

HTS-Compatible Patient-Derived Cell-Based Assay to Identify Small Molecule Modulators of Aberrant Splicing in Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1.

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is a genetic disorder characterized by muscle wasting, myotonia, cataracts, cardiac arrhythmia, hyperinsulinism and intellectual deficits, and is caused by expansion of a CTG repeat in the 3'UTR of the Dystrophia Myotonica-Protein Kinase (DMPK) gene. The DMPK transcripts containing expanded CUG repeats accumulate in nuclear foci and ultimately cause mis-splicing of secondary genes through the dysregulation of RNA-binding proteins including Muscleblind 1 (MBNL1) and CUG binding protein 1 (CUGBP1). Correction of mis-splicing of genes such as the Skeletal muscle-specific chloride channel 1 (CLCN1), Cardiac troponin T (TNNT2), Insulin receptor (INSR) and Sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)ATPase 1 (SERCA1) may alleviate some of the symptoms of DM1; hence identification of small molecule modulators is an important step towards a therapy for DM1 patients. Here we describe the generation of immortalized myoblast cell lines derived from healthy (DMPK CTG(5)) and DM1 patient (DMPK CTG(1000)) fibroblasts by constitutive overexpression of human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) and inducible overexpression of the Myoblast determination factor (MYOD). MBNL1-containing nuclear foci, mis-splicing events and defective myotube differentiation defects characteristic of DM1 were observed in these cells. A CLCN1 luciferase minigene construct (CLCN1-luc) was stably introduced to monitor intron 2 retention in the DM1 cellular context (a reported splicing defect in DM1). The assay was validated by performing a high-throughput screen (HTS) of ~13,000 low molecular weight compounds against the CLCN1-luc DM1 myoblast cell line, providing an ideal system for conducting HTS to better understand and treat DM1.

Efficient transposition of Tol2 in the mouse germline.

Insertional mutagenesis screens play an integral part in the annotating of functional data for all sequenced genes in the postgenomic era. Chemical mutagenesis screens are highly efficient but identifying the causative gene can be a laborious task. Other mutagenesis platforms, such as transposable elements, have been successfully applied for insertional mutagenesis screens in both the mouse and rat. However, relatively low transposition efficiency has hampered their use as a high-throughput forward genetic mutagenesis screen. Here we report the first evidence of germline activity in the mouse using a naturally active DNA transposon derived from the medaka fish called Tol2, as an alternative system for high-throughput forward genetic mutagenesis screening tool.

Inducible ablation of melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells reveals their central role in non-image forming visual responses.

Rod/cone photoreceptors of the outer retina and the melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells (mRGCs) of the inner retina mediate non-image forming visual responses including entrainment of the circadian clock to the ambient light, the pupillary light reflex (PLR), and light modulation of activity. Targeted deletion of the melanopsin gene attenuates these adaptive responses with no apparent change in the development and morphology of the mRGCs. Comprehensive identification of mRGCs and knowledge of their specific roles in image-forming and non-image forming photoresponses are currently lacking. We used a Cre-dependent GFP expression strategy in mice to genetically label the mRGCs. This revealed that only a subset of mRGCs express enough immunocytochemically detectable levels of melanopsin. We also used a Cre-inducible diphtheria toxin receptor (iDTR) expression approach to express the DTR in mRGCs. mRGCs develop normally, but can be acutely ablated upon diphtheria toxin administration. The mRGC-ablated mice exhibited normal outer retinal function. However, they completely lacked non-image forming visual responses such as circadian photoentrainment, light modulation of activity, and PLR. These results point to the mRGCs as the site of functional integration of the rod/cone and melanopsin phototransduction pathways and as the primary anatomical site for the divergence of image-forming and non-image forming photoresponses in mammals.

Ablation of Csk in neural crest lineages causes corneal anomaly by deregulating collagen fibril organization and cell motility.

Src family kinases (SFKs) have been implicated in the regulation of cell motility. To verify their in vivo roles during development, we generated mutant mice in which Csk, a negative regulator of SFKs, was inactivated in neural crest lineages using the Protein zero promoter in a Cre-loxP system. Inactivation of Csk caused deformities in various tissues of neural crest origins, including facial dysplasia and corneal opacity. In the cornea, the stromal collagen fibril was disorganized and there was an overproduction of collagen 1a1 and several metalloproteases. The corneal endothelium failed to overlie the central region of the eye and the peripheral endothelium displayed a disorganized cytoskeleton. Corneal mesenchymal cells cultured from mutant mice showed attenuated cell motility. In these cells, p130 Crk-associated substrate (Cas) was hyperphosphorylated and markedly downregulated. The expression of a dominant negative Cas (Cas Delta SD) could suppress the cell motility defects. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis revealed that activation of Rac1 and Cdc42 was depolarized in Csk-inactivated cells, which was restored by the expression of either Csk or Cas Delta SD. These results demonstrate that the SFKs/Csk circuit plays crucial roles in corneal development by controlling stromal organization and by ensuring cell motility via the Cas-Rac/Cdc42 pathways.