21st century (clinical) decision support in nursing and allied healthcare. Developing a learning health system: a reasoned design of a theoretical framework.

In this paper, we present a framework for developing a Learning Health System (LHS) to provide means to a computerized clinical decision support system for allied healthcare and/or nursing professionals. LHSs are well suited to transform healthcare systems in a mission-oriented approach, and is being adopted by an increasing number of countries. Our theoretical framework provides a blueprint for organizing such a transformation with help of evidence based state of the art methodologies and techniques to eventually optimize personalized health and healthcare. Learning via health information technologies using LHS enables users to learn both individually and collectively, and independent of their location. These developments demand healthcare innovations beyond a disease focused orientation since clinical decision making in allied healthcare and nursing is mainly based on aspects of individuals' functioning, wellbeing and (dis)abilities. Developing LHSs depends heavily on intertwined social and technological innovation, and research and development. Crucial factors may be the transformation of the Internet of Things into the Internet of FAIR data & services. However, Electronic Health Record (EHR) data is in up to 80% unstructured including free text narratives and stored in various inaccessible data warehouses. Enabling the use of data as a driver for learning is challenged by interoperability and reusability.To address technical needs, key enabling technologies are suitable to convert relevant health data into machine actionable data and to develop algorithms for computerized decision support. To enable data conversions, existing classification and terminology systems serve as definition providers for natural language processing through (un)supervised learning.To facilitate clinical reasoning and personalized healthcare using LHSs, the development of personomics and functionomics are useful in allied healthcare and nursing. Developing these omics will be determined via text and data mining. This will focus on the relationships between social, psychological, cultural, behavioral and economic determinants, and human functioning.Furthermore, multiparty collaboration is crucial to develop LHSs, and man-machine interaction studies are required to develop a functional design and prototype. During development, validation and maintenance of the LHS continuous attention for challenges like data-drift, ethical, technical and practical implementation difficulties is required.

To What Degree Does Active Cervical Range of Motion Differ Between Patients With Neck Pain, Patients With Whiplash, and Those Without Neck Pain? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To quantify differences in active cervical range of motion (aCROM) between patients with neck pain and those without neck pain, in patients with whiplash-associated disorders (WADs) and nontraumatic neck pain, and in patients with acute complaints versus those with chronic complaints. DATA SOURCES: Seven bibliographic databases were searched from inception to April 2015. In addition, a manual search was performed. STUDY SELECTION: Full articles on a numerical comparison of aCROM in patients with neck pain and asymptomatic control persons of similar ages were included. Two reviewers independently selected studies and assessed risk of bias. DATA EXTRACTION: Two reviewers extracted the data. Pooled mean differences of aCROM were calculated using a random-effects model. DATA SYNTHESIS: The search yielded 6261 hits; 27 articles (2366 participants, 13 low risk of bias) met the inclusion criteria. The neck pain group showed less aCROM in all movement directions compared with persons without neck pain. Mean differences ranged from -7.04° (95% CI, -9.70° to -4.38°) for right lateral bending (11 studies) to -89.59° (95% CI, -131.67° to -47.51°) for total aCROM (4 studies). Patients with WADs had less aCROM than patients with nontraumatic neck pain. No conclusive differences in aCROM were found between patients with acute and patients with chronic complaints. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with neck pain have a significantly decreased aCROM compared with persons without neck pain, and patients with WADs have less aCROM than those with nontraumatic neck pain.

Adverse events following cervical manipulative therapy: consensus on classification among Dutch medical specialists, manual therapists, and patients.

OBJECTIVES: To obtain consensus-based agreement on a classification system of adverse events (AE) following cervical spinal manipulation. The classification system should be comprised of clear definitions, include patients' and clinicians' perspectives, and have an acceptable number of categories. METHODS: Design: A three-round Delphi study. Participants: Thirty Dutch participants (medical specialists, manual therapists, and patients) participated in an online survey. Procedure: Participants inventoried AE and were asked about their preferences for either a three- or a four-category classification system. The identified AE were classified by two analysts following the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), and the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10). Participants were asked to classify the severity for all AE in relation to the time duration. RESULTS: Consensus occurred in a three-category classification system. There was strong consensus for 16 AE in all severities (no, minor, and major AE) and all three time durations [hours, days, weeks]. The 16 AE included anxiety, flushing, skin rash, fainting, dizziness, coma, altered sensation, muscle tenderness, pain, increased pain during movement, radiating pain, dislocation, fracture, transient ischemic attack, stroke, and death. Mild to strong consensus was reached for 13 AE. DISCUSSION: A consensus-based classification system of AE is established which includes patients' and clinicians' perspectives and has three categories. The classification comprises a precise description of potential AE in accordance with internationally accepted classifications. After international validation, clinicians and researchers may use this AE classification system to report AE in clinical practice and research.

Validation of a new questionnaire to assess the impact of Whiplash Associated Disorders: The Whiplash Activity and participation List (WAL).

Valid questionnaires for measuring functional limitations in patients with Whiplash Associated Disorders (WAD) are lacking, since existing measures are not suitable for addressing the specific limitations of these patients and because of cross contamination between theoretical constructs. The objective of this study was to evaluate dimensionality, test-retest reliability, measurement error, construct validity, and responsiveness of a new condition-specific questionnaire for WAD as well as to estimate the minimally important change score. Patients with WAD grade I or II were recruited from physical therapy practices and rehabilitation centers. Dimensionality was examined by internal consistency analysis (Cronbach's alpha) and factor analysis. Test-retest reliability was estimated by intraclass correlations and measurement error was calculated by the minimal detectable change (MDC) scores. Construct validity was investigated by testing predefined hypotheses on correlations of the WAL scores with generic health measures and by using the known group method. Responsiveness was expressed as the minimal clinically important change (MCIC) score. 73 patients (53 women) were included. Cronbach's alpha was high (0.95) and unidimensionality was plausible because factor analysis showed 40.3% variance explained by one dominant factor, which was more than 4.5 times larger than the second largest factor. Test-retest reliability was excellent (0.92, 95% CI 0.87-0.95). Construct validity was supported by 14 out of 15 confirmed hypotheses and the WAL showed statistically significant differences between known groups. MDC was 16 points while the MCIC was 18 points. In conclusion, the present study suggests that the WAL has adequate measurement properties, but additional research is needed.

Indicating spinal joint mobilisations or manipulations in patients with neck or low-back pain: protocol of an inter-examiner reliability study among manual therapists.

BACKGROUND: Manual spinal joint mobilisations and manipulations are widely used treatments in patients with neck and low-back pain. Inter-examiner reliability of passive intervertebral motion assessment of the cervical and lumbar spine, perceived as important for indicating these interventions, is poor within a univariable approach. The diagnostic process as a whole in daily practice in manual therapy has a multivariable character, however, in which the use and interpretation of passive intervertebral motion assessment depend on earlier results from the diagnostic process. To date, the inter-examiner reliability among manual therapists of a multivariable diagnostic decision-making process in patients with neck or low-back pain is unknown. METHODS: This study will be conducted as a repeated-measures design in which 14 pairs of manual therapists independently examine a consecutive series of a planned total of 165 patients with neck or low-back pain presenting in primary care physiotherapy. Primary outcome measure is therapists' decision about whether or not manual spinal joint mobilisations or manipulations, or both, are indicated in each patient, alone or as part of a multimodal treatment. Therapists will largely be free to conduct the full diagnostic process based on their formulated examination objectives. For each pair of therapists, 2×2 tables will be constructed and reliability for the dichotomous decision will be expressed using Cohen's kappa. In addition, observed agreement, prevalence of positive decisions, prevalence index, bias index, and specific agreement in positive and negative decisions will be calculated. Univariable logistic regression analysis of concordant decisions will be performed to explore which demographic, professional, or clinical factors contributed to reliability. DISCUSSION: This study will provide an estimate of the inter-examiner reliability among manual therapists of indicating spinal joint mobilisations or manipulations in patients with neck or low-back pain based on a multivariable diagnostic reasoning and decision-making process, as opposed to reliability of individual tests. As such, it is proposed as an initial step toward the development of an alternative approach to current classification systems and prediction rules for identifying those patients with spinal disorders that may show a better response to manual therapy which can be incorporated in randomised clinical trials. Potential methodological limitations of this study are discussed.

Measurement of clinically relevant functional health perceptions in patients with whiplash-associated disorders: the development of the whiplash specific activity and participation list (WAL).

PURPOSE: The International Classification of Human Functioning Disability and Health (ICF) provides insight into functional health status in patients with whiplash-associated disorders (WAD). In the assessment of functional limitations in patients with WAD, there are several condition-specific questionnaires available. Estimation of the true relationship between the separate constructs of the ICF is only possible if the items of the salient questionnaires measure exactly the constructs of interest, while not simultaneously measuring other constructs of the model. This study aimed to develop a condition specific and clinically relevant and usable instrument for patients with WAD that measures activity limitations and participation restrictions, as defined by the ICF framework. METHODS: Item generation consisted of (1) a semi-structured interview which was conducted among 69 WAD patients; (2) a Delphi study involving 13 health professionals experienced in the assessment of patients with WAD; (3) a literature search for items from self-assessment questionnaires for neck pain. RESULTS: A 35-item condition-specific self-assessment questionnaire for patients with WAD was developed. This new questionnaire measures purely activity limitations and participation restrictions according to the ICF and is based on patients' opinions and expert opinions. CONCLUSION: The whiplash activity and participation list tends to measure clinically relevant activity limitations and participation restrictions in WAD patients.

Content validity of the Dutch version of the Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire.

OBJECTIVE: Mechanical neck pain is a common human phenomenon. In most cases, no patho-anatomical lesion can be identified with the limitations of current radiological imaging. Therefore it is preferable to assess patients with neck pain with a focus on functioning and health, within a biopsychosocial model. The Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire aims to assess biopsychosocial aspects of neck pain. However, the content validity of the Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire Dutch language version (NBQ-NL) in relation to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) is unknown. The purpose of the study was to examine the content validity of the NBQ-NL in relation to the health components of the ICF. METHOD: Content validity was assessed in relation to the ICF, by means of Discriminant Content Validity (DCV). RESULTS: The results indicate that the NBQ-NL measures four components of the five ICF (impairment, activity, participation and personal factors). CONCLUSION: The NBQ is a multidimensional questionnaire, representing four of the five components of the ICF.

The Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire cross-cultural adaptation into Dutch and evaluation of its psychometric properties in a population with subacute and chronic whiplash associated disorders.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-cultural adaptation of an outcome questionnaire. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to cross-culturally adapt the Neck Bournemouth Questionnaire (NBQ) for the Dutch language in a population of people with subacute and chronic whiplash associated disorders (WAD), and to assess its psychometric qualities. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The NBQ covers the salient dimensions of the biopsychosocial model of pain, and has been shown to be reliable, valid, and responsive to clinically significant change in patients with non specific neck pain. However, no Dutch validated version was available for patients with WAD at the time our study was initiated. METHODS: The English version of the NBQ was translated into Dutch (NBQ-NL) and back-translated according to established guidelines. The internal consistency (with help of Cronbach's alpha), construct validity, and convergent validity were estimated in a different group of 92 patients. Agreement and correlation between the NBQ-NL scores and counterpart questionnaires (SF-36, Neck Disability Index, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the General Perceived Self-Efficacy and a numerical rating scale for perceived pain) were investigated, using Bland and Altman method and Spearman rank correlation coefficient. Subsequently, 34 patients with subacute WAD completed the questionnaire twice over 1 to 3 weeks, to assess its test-retest reliability. RESULTS: Ninety-two patients, with subacute and chronic WAD, completed the study. Their mean age was 41 years (SD = 11). There were relative high mean scores on the Neck Disability Index (25.5; SD = 8.2), and the NBQ (43.9; SD = 14.8). The NBQ-NL was granted face-validity. Spearman rank correlation coefficient was 0.51 to 0.82 (except for General Perceived Self-Efficacy (0.21). The limits of agreement of normalized scores were relative variable, from small to wide. Cronbach's alpha (internal consistency) for the NBQ-NL whole scale was 0.87. The Intraclass correlation coefficient for the test-retest reliability was excellent (0.92) and the SEM was relatively low (3.7). CONCLUSION: Overall, the rank correlation level in general was good, whereas the agreement between questionnaires outcome was variable, most of which seems to be attributable to absolute scale differences. The NBQ-NL is a useable patient-orientated tool for assessing disability in clinical studies and clinical diagnosis in Dutch speaking patients with WAD.

Patients with chronic whiplash-associated disorders: relationship between clinical and psychological factors and functional health status.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relative contribution of cervical impairments and psychosocial factors to perceived disability among people with chronic whiplash-associated disorders. DESIGN: A total of 86 patients with chronic whiplash-associated disorders participated in this observational, cross-sectional study. All patients were presented to outpatient physical therapy clinics. All patients completed the neck disability index. Depression, anxiety, and catastrophizing were measured with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression scale and the pain coping and cognition list, respectively. Cervical function was assessed by measuring the active range of motion. Stepwise and hierarchical regression analysis was used to estimate the contribution of cervical impairment and psychosocial functions to the variance in neck disability. RESULTS: Depressive symptomatology and catastrophizing explained 61% of the variance in neck disability index scores. Catastrophizing explained 57% of the variance in neck disability index scores and 15% of the variance in the sum scores of active cervical rotations. CONCLUSIONS: Catastrophizing explained the variance in both perceived neck disability and, to a lesser extent, active range of cervical motion, which suggests that pain-related catastrophizing plays an important role in the physical complaints of patients with chronic whiplash-associated disorders when referred to a physical therapist.

Functional health status in subjects after a motor vehicle accident, with emphasis on whiplash associated disorders: design of a descriptive, prospective inception cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The clinical consequences of whiplash injuries resulting from a motor vehicle accident (MVA) are poorly understood. Thereby, there is general lack of research on the development of disability in patients with acute and chronic Whiplash Associated Disorders. METHODS/DESIGN: The objective is to describe the design of an inception cohort study with a 1-year follow-up to determine risk factors for the development of symptoms after a low-impact motor vehicle accident, the prognosis of chronic disability, and costs. Victims of a low-impact motor vehicle accident will be eligible for participation. Participants with a Neck Disability Index (NDI) score of 7 or more will be classified as experiencing post-traumatic neck pain and will enter the experimental group. Participants without complaints (a NDI score less than 7) will enter the reference group. The cohort will be followed up by means of postal questionnaires and physical examinations at baseline, 3 months, 6 months, and 12 months. Recovery from whiplash-associated disorders will be measured in terms of perceived functional health, and employment status (return to work). Life tables will be generated to determine the 1-year prognosis of whiplash-associated disorders, and risk factors and prognostic factors will be assessed using multiple logistic regression analysis. DISCUSSION: Little is known about the development of symptoms and chronic disability after a whiplash injury. In the clinical setting, it is important to identify those people who are at risk of developing chronic symptoms.This inception prospective cohort study will provide insight in the influence of risk factors, of the development of functional health problems, and costs in people with whiplash-associated disorders.