The evolutionary species pool concept does not explain occurrence patterns of dead-wood-dependent organisms: implications for logging residue extraction.

Emulation of natural disturbances is often regarded as a key measure to make forestry biodiversity-oriented. Consequently, extraction of logging residues is assumed to have little negative effect in comparison to extraction of dead wood mainly formed at natural disturbances. This is consistent with the evolutionary species pool hypothesis, which suggests that most species are evolutionary adapted to the naturally most abundant habitats. We tested this hypothesis for dead-wood-dependent macrofungi, lichens, and beetles in a boreal forest landscape in central Sweden, assuming that species are adapted to conditions similar to today's unmanaged forest. No occurrence patterns, for the species groups which we investigated, were consistent with the hypothesis. Overall, stumps and snags had the highest habitat quality (measured as average population density with equal weight given to each species) and fine woody debris the lowest, which was unexpected, since stumps were the rarest dead-wood type in unmanaged forest. We conclude that the evolutionary species pool concept did not explain patterns of species' occurrences, and for two reasons, the concept is not reliable as a general rule of thumb: (1) what constitute habitats harbouring different species communities can only be understood from habitat-specific studies and (2) the suitability of habitats is affected by their biophysical characteristics. Thus, emulation of natural disturbances may promote biodiversity, but empirical studies are needed for each habitat to understand how natural disturbances should be emulated. We also conclude that stump extraction for bioenergy is associated with larger risks for biodiversity than fine woody debris extraction.

Identification and Field Assay of Two Aggregation Pheromone Components Emitted by Males of the Bark Beetle Polygraphus punctifrons (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).

The bark beetle Polygraphus punctifrons (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a species that feeds on Norway spruce (Picea abies) and is found in the Northern parts of Europe and Russia. The release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) produced by males and females of P. punctifrons when the beetles bore into spruce stem sections in a laboratory environment was studied using solid phase microextraction (SPME). The sampled VOCs emitted by boring beetles were analysed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GCMS). (+)-2-[(1R,2S)-1-Methyl-2-(prop-1-en-2-yl)cyclobutyl]ethanol [(+)-(1R,2S)-grandisol] and (-)-(R)-1-isopropyl-4-methyl-3-cyclohexen-1-ol [(-)-(R)-terpinen-4-ol] were identified to be male specific volatiles. The identity of the compounds was confirmed by comparison with synthetic samples. Field trials with synthetic compounds in Sweden showed that racemic grandisol per se was strongly attractive for both males and females, while (-)-(R)-terpinen-4-ol was not. Further, when adding (-)-(R)-terpinen-4-ol to rac-grandisol, a synergistic effect was observed as the trap catch of P. punctifrons was fourfold. (-)-(R)-Terpinen-4-ol by its own did not attract P. punctifrons but Polygraphus poligraphus, and the latter was also attracted to traps baited with a 10:90 mixture of the two compounds. Thus, we have identified (+)-(1R,2S)-grandisol as a main component and (-)-(R)-terpinen-4-ol as a minor component of the aggregation pheromone of P. punctifrons. This opens future possibilities to monitor and, if necessary, manage populations of P. punctifrons.

Consequences of bioenergy wood extraction for landscape-level availability of habitat for dead wood-dependent organisms.

Stumps and slash resulting from forest clearcutting is used as a source of low-net-carbon energy, but there are concerns about the consequences of biofuel extraction on biodiversity. Logging residues constitute potentially important habitats, since a large part of forest biodiversity is dependent on dead wood. Here we used snapshot field data from a managed forest landscape (25 000 ha) to predict landscape scale population changes of dead wood dependent organisms after extraction of stumps and slash after clearcutting. We did this by estimating habitat availability for all observed dead wood-dependent beetles, macrofungi, and lichens (380 species) in the whole landscape. We found that 53% of species occurred in slash or stumps. For most species, population declines after moderate extraction (≤30%) were small (<10% decline) because they mainly occur on other dead wood types. However, some species were only recorded in slash and stumps. Red listed species were affected by slash and stump extraction (12 species), but less often than other species. Beetles and fungi were more affected by stump extraction, while lichens were more affected by slash extraction. For beetles and lichens, extraction of a combination of spruce, pine and birch resulted in larger negative effects than if only extracting spruce, while for fungi tree species had little effect. We conclude that extensive extraction decreases the amount of habitat to such extent that it may have negative consequences on species persistence at the landscape level. The negative consequences can be limited by extracting only slash, or only logging residues from spruce stands.

Methods to identify the prey of invertebrate predators in terrestrial field studies.

Predation is an interaction during which an organism kills and feeds on another organism. Past and current interest in studying predation in terrestrial habitats has yielded a number of methods to assess invertebrate predation events in terrestrial ecosystems. We provide a decision tree to select appropriate methods for individual studies. For each method, we then present a short introduction, key examples for applications, advantages and disadvantages, and an outlook to future refinements. Video and, to a lesser extent, live observations are recommended in studies that address behavioral aspects of predator-prey interactions or focus on per capita predation rates. Cage studies are only appropriate for small predator species, but often suffer from a bias via cage effects. The use of prey baits or analyses of prey remains are cheaper than other methods and have the potential to provide per capita predation estimates. These advantages often come at the cost of low taxonomic specificity. Molecular methods provide reliable estimates at a fine level of taxonomic resolution and are free of observer bias for predator species of any size. However, the current PCR-based methods lack the ability to estimate predation rates for individual predators and are more expensive than other methods. Molecular and stable isotope analyses are best suited to address systems that include a range of predator and prey species. Our review of methods strongly suggests that while in many cases individual methods are sufficient to study specific questions, combinations of methods hold a high potential to provide more holistic insights into predation events. This review presents an overview of methods to researchers that are new to the field or to particular aspects of predation ecology and provides recommendations toward the subset of suitable methods to identify the prey of invertebrate predators in terrestrial field research.

Anatomical Suitability of the Zenith Off-the-Shelf (p-Branch) Endograft in Juxtarenal Aortic Aneurysms Previously Treated Using the Chimney Technique.

PURPOSE: To examine the suitability of the Zenith off-the-shelf (p-branch) endograft in patients with juxta- or pararenal abdominal aortic aneurysms (J/PRAA) previously treated with endovascular aneurysm repair incorporating the chimney technique (chEVAR). METHODS: Between January 2012 and December 2014, high-resolution computed tomography angiograms and clinical data from 50 patients (mean age 79 years; 45 men) with J/PRAAs treated with chEVAR were retrospectively reviewed. Primary anatomical suitability was evaluated according to the Investigational Device Exemption protocol for the Zenith p-branch endograft in a dedicated 3-dimensional vascular workstation. Secondary suitability was defined as any additional intervention needed to overcome adverse anatomical conditions at the access vessels. The Zenith p-branch endograft is available in 2 configurations (A and B), with the main difference being the distance between the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and the renal fenestrations. RESULTS: The p-branch endograft showed a primary suitability of 54% (n=27). Each configuration was suitable in 18 (36%) patients. Main anatomical limitations were the clock position of the left renal artery (LRA; n=7, 14%), the distance between the SMA and LRA (A: n=16, 32%; B: n=16, 32%), and significantly narrowed or calcified iliac arteries. If additional interventions at the access vessels were employed, a secondary suitability of 64% (n=32) could be achieved. CONCLUSION: In this specific group of patients treated with chEVAR, the Zenith p-branch system would be suitable in about half of the patients, which could be raised to two-thirds with ancillary access vessel procedures. A prospective clinical study is warranted to evaluate these results.

Reducing the risk of invasive forest pests and pathogens: Combining legislation, targeted management and public awareness.

Intensifying global trade will result in increased numbers of plant pest and pathogen species inadvertently being transported along with cargo. This paper examines current mechanisms for prevention and management of potential introductions of forest insect pests and pathogens in the European Union (EU). Current European legislation has not been found sufficient in preventing invasion, establishment and spread of pest and pathogen species within the EU. Costs associated with future invasions are difficult to estimate but past invasions have led to negative economic impacts in the invaded country. The challenge is combining free trade and free movement of products (within the EU) with protection against invasive pests and pathogens. Public awareness may mobilise the public for prevention and detection of potential invasions and, simultaneously, increase support for eradication and control measures. We recommend focus on commodities in addition to pathways, an approach within the EU using a centralised response unit and, critically, to engage the general public in the battle against establishment and spread of these harmful pests and pathogens.

SPME collection and GC-MS analysis of volatiles emitted during the attack of male Polygraphus poligraphus (Coleoptera, Curcolionidae) on Norway spruce.

Tree mortality caused by bark beetles has increased in recent decades in both Europe and North America. In a large recent outbreak in central Sweden the bark beetle Polygraphus poligraphus was often found together with the spruce bark beetle Ips typographus in killed trees. To increase the understanding of the aggregation behavior of P. poligraphus we used solid phase microextraction (SPME) to collect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released from single P. poligraphus males, with and without added females, colonizing Norway spruce stem sections and analyzed the sampled compounds by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). High amounts of terpinen-4-ol, a substance found in the hindguts of P. poligraphus males in earlier studies, were released by colonizing males. The emission of both enantiomers of terpinen-4-ol was monitored by GC-MS over time as the males aged in the absence and presence of females. Single males emitted (R)-(-)-terpinen-4-ol for up to 60 days in high enantiomeric purity but the enantiomeric excess (ee) varied between males, and also for the same individual, over time from 96.3% to 99.3% ee. In the presence of females, males also emitted terpinen-4-ol for up to 50 days but now in lower amounts and with lower enantiomeric purity varying from 67.7% ee to 99.3% ee. Small quantities of other volatile compounds were emitted from the colonizing beetles including cis- and trans-4-thujanol, both of which were previously shown to be present in the hindguts of males. In earlier studies frontalin was found to attract P. poligraphus, but in our study it was not identified among emitted compounds from colonizing beetles.

γ-Unsaturated aldehydes as potential Lilial replacers.

A series of Claisen rearrangements was undertaken in order to find a replacement for Lilial (=3-(4-(tert-butyl)phenyl)-2-methylpropanal), a high-tonnage perfumery ingredient with a lily-of-the-valley odour, which is a CMR2 material [1]. 5,7,7-Trimethyl-4-methyleneoctanal (10), the synthesis of which is described, became the main lead. It possesses an odour which is very close to that of Lilial but lacks its substantivity. Aldehydes with higher molecular weights than that of 10 were, therefore, synthesised in order to boost substantivity and to understand the structural requirements for a 'Lilial' odour. The aldehydes were obtained via Claisen rearrangements of 'exo-methylidene' vinyl ethers, allenyl vinyl ethers, or allenyl allyl ethers. Alternatively, coupling of terminal alkynes with allyl alcohols led to the desired aldehydes. Derivatives of 10 and their sila analogues were also synthesised. The olfactory properties of all synthesised molecules were evaluated for possible structure-odour relationships (SOR).

Long-term priority effects among insects and fungi colonizing decaying wood.

1. Priority effects have been hypothesized to have long-lasting impact on community structure in natural ecosystems. Long-term studies of priority effects in natural ecosystems are however sparse, especially in terrestrial ecosystems. 2. Wood decay is a slow process involving a high diversity of insect and fungus species. Species interactions that drive change in communities of insects and fungi during wood decay are poorly understood because of a lack of sufficient long-term studies. 3. In this paper, we followed the colonization and succession of wood-living insects and fungi on cut trees during 15 years, from tree death and onwards, in a boreal forest landscape. We test the long-term priority effects hypothesis that the identity and abundance of species that colonize first affect the colonization success of later-arriving species. We also hypothesize that species interact in both facilitative and inhibitory ways, which ultimately affect habitat quality for a red-listed late-succession beetle species. 4. Possible causal associations between species were explored by path analysis. The results indicate that one bark beetle species, Hylurgops palliatus, and one wood-borer species, Monochamus sutor, which colonized the wood during the first year after cutting, influenced the occurrence of a rare, wood-living beetle, Peltis grossa, that started to emerge from the stumps about 10 years later. The positive effects of Hylurgops palliatus and negative effects of M. sutor were largely mediated through the wood-decaying fungus species Fomitopsis pinicola. 5. The study shows that variable priority effects may have long-lasting impact on community assembly in decaying wood. The study also exemplifies new possibilities for managing populations of threatened species by exploring links between early, well-understood species guilds and late, more poorly understood species guilds.

Is eradication of the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) likely? An evaluation of current contingency plans.

The pinewood nematode (PWN) is one of the worst tree-killing exotic pests in East-Asian countries. The first European record of establishment in Portugal in 1999 triggered extensive surveys and contingency plans for eradication in European countries, including immediate removal of large areas of conifer host trees. Using Norway as an example, we applied a simulation model to evaluate the chance of successful eradication of a hypothetical introduction by the current contingency plan in a northern area where wilting symptoms are not expected to occur. Despite a highly variable spread of nematode infestations in space and time, the probability of successful eradication in 20 years was consistently low (mean 0.035, SE 0.02). The low success did not change significantly by varying the biological parameters in sensitivity analyses (SA), probably due to the late detection of infestations by the survey (mean 14.3 years). SA revealed a strong influence of management parameters. However, a high probability of eradication required unrealistic measures: achieving an eradication probability of 0.99 in 20 years required 10,000 survey samples per year and a host tree removal radius of 8,000 m around each detection point.

Safety and efficacy of outpatient treatment with CPT-11 plus bolus folinic acid/5-fluorouracil as first-line chemotherapy for metastatic colorectal cancer.

The combination of irinotecan (CPT-11), bolus 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and folinic acid (FA) (Saltz regimen) has recently been questioned as first-line chemotherapy for metastatic colorectal cancer after high early death rates due to gastrointestinal and thromboembolic events were reported in two US trials. Therefore, we carefully evaluated the safety and efficacy of this regimen, with high value placed on the management of delayed diarrhea. Forty-six patients with metastatic colorectal cancer received this first-line treatment in nine German outpatient clinics. Dose reductions were mandatory from the first cycle in case of toxicity grade >2. Chemotherapy was administered only to diarrhea-free patients. During a total of 175 cycles administered treatments were delayed for 1 week in 11.6% and given at a reduced dose in 14.5%. All and 40 patients were evaluable for toxicity and response, respectively. Grade 3/4 toxicities included diarrhea (n=10), leukopenia (n=9), neutropenia (n=3) and anemia (n=4). One non-fatal pulmonary embolism occurred. Four complete responses (CR) and 10 partial responses were seen, for an overall response rate of 35%. In addition, 16 patients (40%) had stable disease. Resectability of liver metastases was achieved in three patients, including one pathologically confirmed CR. Median progression-free and overall survival were 5 and 13 months, respectively. We conclude that outpatient treatment with the Saltz regimen was well tolerated. Severe gastrointestinal toxicity and thromboembolic events were rarely observed and never fatal. As down-staging was possible, combinations of CPT-11 and FA/5-FU should be further investigated in neoadjuvant protocols.