Nasal and skin microbiomes are associated with disease severity in paediatric atopic dermatitis.

BACKGROUND: Alterations of the skin microbiome have been associated with atopic dermatitis (AD) and its severity. The nasal microbiome in relation to AD severity is less well studied. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to characterize the nasal and skin microbiomes in children with AD in relation to disease severity. In addition, we explored the differences and correlations between the nasal and skin communities. METHODS: We characterized the microbial composition of 90 nasal and 108 lesional skin samples cross-sectionally from patients with AD, using 16S-rRNA sequencing. In addition, a quantitative polymerase chain reaction was performed for Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis on the skin samples, and AD severity was estimated using the self-administered Eczema Area and Severity Index. RESULTS: We found an association between the microbial composition and AD severity in both the nose and skin samples (R2  = 2·6%; P = 0·017 and R2  = 7·0%; P = 0·004), strongly driven by staphylococci. However, other species also contributed, such as Moraxella in the nose. Skin lesions were positive for S. aureus in 50% of the children, and the presence and the load of S. aureus were not associated with AD severity. Although the nose and skin harbour distinct microbial communities (n = 48 paired samples; P < 0·001), we found that correlations exist between species in the nose and (other) species on the skin. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that both the nasal and the skin microbiomes are associated with AD severity in children and that, next to staphylococci, other species contribute to this association.

An Ex Vivo Fermentation Screening Platform to Study Drug Metabolism by Human Gut Microbiota.

Colon microbiota-based drug metabolism has received little attention thus far in the process of drug development, whereas the role of gut microbiota in clinical safety and efficacy of drugs has become more clear. Many of these studies have been performed using animal studies, but the translational value of these data with respect to drug pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety is largely unknown. To investigate human colon microbiota-mediated drug metabolism, we applied a recently developed ex vivo fermentation screening platform, in which human colonic microbiota conditions are simulated. A set of 12 drugs (omeprazole, simvastatin, metronidazole, risperidone, sulfinpyrazone, sulindac, levodopa, dapsone, nizatidine, sulfasalazine, zonisamide, and acetaminophen) was incubated with human colon microbiota under strictly anaerobic conditions, and samples were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatograph-UV-high-resolution mass spectrometry analysis. The human microbiota in the fermentation assay consisted of bacterial genera regularly encountered in human colon and fecal samples and could be reproducibly cultured in independent experiments over time. In addition, fully anaerobic culture conditions could be maintained for 24 hours of incubation. Five out of the 12 included drugs (sulfasalazine, sulfinpyrazone, sulindac, nizatidine, and risperidone) showed microbiota-based biotransformation after 24 hours of incubation in the ex vivo fermentation assay. We demonstrated that drug metabolites formed by microbial metabolism can be detected in a qualitative manner and that the data are in accordance with those reported earlier for in vivo metabolism. In conclusion, we present a research tool to investigate human colon microbiota-based drug metabolism that may be applied to enable translatability of microbiota-based drug metabolism.

Reversal of visceral hypersensitivity in rat by Menthacarin® , a proprietary combination of essential oils from peppermint and caraway, coincides with mycobiome modulation.

BACKGROUND: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common gastrointestinal disorder associated with altered gastrointestinal microflora and increased nociception to colonic distension. This visceral hypersensitivity can be reversed in our rat maternal separation model by fungicides. Menthacarin® is a proprietary combination of essential oils from Mentha x piperita L. and Carum carvi. Because these oils exhibit antifungal and antibacterial properties, we investigated whether Menthacarin® can reverse existing visceral hypersensitivity in maternally separated rats. METHODS: In non-handled and maternally separated rats, we used the visceromotor responses to colorectal distension as measure for visceral sensitivity. We evaluated this response before and 24 hours after water-avoidance stress and after 7 days treatment with Menthacarin® or control. The pre- and post-treatment mycobiome and microbiome were characterized by sequencing of fungal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS-1) and bacterial 16s rDNA regions. In vitro antifungal and antimicrobial properties of Menthacarin® were studied with radial diffusion assay. KEY RESULTS: Menthacarin® inhibited in vitro growth of yeast and bacteria. Water-avoidance caused visceral hypersensitivity in maternally separated rats, and this was reversed by treatment. Multivariate analyses of ITS-1 and 16S high throughput data showed that maternal separation, induced changes in the myco- and microbiome. Menthacarin® treatment of non-handled and maternally separated rats shifted the mycobiomes to more similar compositions. CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES: The development of visceral hypersensitivity in maternally separated rats and the Menthacarin® -mediated reversal of hypersensitivity is associated with changes in the mycobiome. Therefore, Menthacarin® may be a safe and effective treatment option that should be tested for IBS.

Exploring the effects of galacto-oligosaccharides on the gut microbiota of healthy adults receiving amoxicillin treatment.

In the present double-blind, randomised, parallel intervention study, the effects of the intake of galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) on the gut microbiota of twelve healthy adult subjects (aged 18-45 years with a normal BMI (18-25 kg/m²)) receiving amoxicillin (AMX) treatment were determined. All the subjects were treated with AMX (375 mg; three times per d) for 5 d and given either GOS (n 6) or placebo (maltodextrin, n 6) (2·5 g; three times per d) during and 7 d after AMX treatment. Faecal samples were collected twice before starting the treatment and on days 2, 5, 8, 12, 19 and 26. Due to AMX treatment, a decrease in the abundance of Bifidobacterium spp., an overgrowth of Enterobacteriaceae, and a disruption of the metabolic activity of the microbiota (increase in succinate, monosaccharide and oligosaccharide levels in the faecal samples) were observed in both groups (P< 0·05). Positive effects of GOS intake were observed on the levels of bifidobacteria, although not found to be significant. Data revealed that the levels of bifidobacteria were higher upon GOS intake than upon placebo intake, especially after AMX treatment. The activity of bifidobacteria and subsequent cross-feeding activity of the microbiota upon GOS intake compared with those upon placebo intake were reflected by the significant increase in butyrate levels (P< 0·05) in the faecal samples after AMX treatment. Despite the small number of subjects, our findings confirm previous results obtained in vitro, namely that GOS intake supports the recovery of the beneficial bifidobacteria and, indirectly, the production of butyrate after AMX treatment.

Ileal microbiota composition of broilers fed various commercial diet compositions.

Microbiota plays a role in the release and absorption of nutrients from feed components, thereby affecting digesta composition and moisture content of the excreta. The objective of the current study was to determine the effects of 5 different diets varying in ingredients (medium-chain fatty acids, nonstarch polysaccharides, and starch) on the microbiota composition of ileal digesta of broiler chickens and excreta DM content. Each treatment was repeated 6 times in cages each containing 18 Ross 308 broilers, with growth performance measured from 0 to 34 d of age and excreta DM and ileal microbiota composition analyzed at 34 d of age. Microbiota composition was evaluated using a novel ribosomal RNA microarray technology containing 370 different probes covering various genera, groups of microbial species, and individual species of the chicken gut microbiota, of which 321 had a signal above the background threshold. Replacing part of the animal fat and soybean oil in the wheat-based diet with medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA; 0.3% C10 and 2.7% C12) improved feed efficiency compared with the other dietary treatments. This coincided with a suppression of gram-positive bacteria belonging to the phylum of the Firmicutes, including Lactobacillus species, and species belonging to the family of the Enterococcaceae and Micrococcaceae, whereas the gram-negative bacteria belonging to the family of the Enterobacteriaceae were promoted. None of the other diets used in the present study notably changed the ileal digesta bacteria composition. Excreta DM content was not affected by dietary treatment. The variation between individual birds per dietary treatment was more pronounced than variation caused by feed composition, with the exception of the digesta microbiota of the birds fed the MCFA diet. It is concluded that a diet with MCFA significantly changes the ileal microbiota composition, whereas the effect of the other diets on the composition of the microbiota and excreta DM content is small in broiler chickens.

High-throughput analysis of the impact of antibiotics on the human intestinal microbiota composition.

Antibiotic treatments can lead to a disruption of the human microbiota. In this in-vitro study, the impact of antibiotics on adult intestinal microbiota was monitored in a new high-throughput approach: a fermentation screening-platform was coupled with a phylogenetic microarray analysis (Intestinal-chip). Fecal inoculum from healthy adults was exposed in a fermentation screening-platform to seven widely-used antibiotics during 24h in-vitro fermentation and the microbiota composition was subsequently determined with the Intestinal-chip. Phylogenetic microarray analysis was first verified to be reliable with respect to variations in the total number of bacteria and presence of dead (or inactive) cells. Intestinal-chip analysis was then used to identify and compare shifts in the intestinal microbial composition after exposure to low and high dose (1µgml(-1) and 10µgml(-1)) antibiotics. Observed shifts on family, genus and species level were both antibiotic and dose dependent. Stronger changes in microbiota composition were observed with higher doses. Shifts mainly concerned the bacterial groups Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Enterobacteriaceae, and Lactobacillus. Within bacterial groups, specific antibiotics were shown to differentially impact related species. The combination of the in-vitro fermentation screening platform with the phylogenetic microarray read-outs has shown to be reliable to simultaneously analyze the effects of several antibiotics on intestinal microbiota.

Bifidobacterium breve - HT-29 cell line interaction: modulation of TNF-α induced gene expression.

To provide insight in the molecular basis for intestinal host-microbe interactions, we determined the genome-wide transcriptional response of human intestinal epithelial cells following exposure to cells of Bifidobacterium breve. To select an appropriate test system reflecting inflammatory conditions, the responsiveness to TNF-α was compared in T84, Caco-2 and HT-29 cells. The highest TNF-α response was observed in HT-29 cells and this cell line was selected for exposure to the B. breve strains M-16V, NR246 and UCC2003. After one hour of bacterial pre-incubation followed by two hours of additional TNF-α stimulation, B. breve M-16V (86%), but to a much lesser extent strains NR246 (50%) or UCC2003 (32%), showed a strain-specific reduction of the HT-29 transcriptional response to the inflammatory treatment. The most important functional groups of genes that were transcriptionally suppressed by the presence of B. breve M-16V, were found to be involved in immune regulation and apoptotic processes. About 54% of the TNF-α induced genes were solely suppressed by the presence of B. breve M-16V. These included apoptosis-related cysteine protease caspase 7 (CASP7), interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3), amyloid beta (A4) precursor proteinbinding family A member 1 (APBA1), NADPH oxidase (NOX5), and leukemia inhibitory factor receptor (LIFR). The extracellular IL-8 concentration was determined by an immunological assay but did not change significantly, indicating that B. breve M-16V only partially modulates the TNF-α pathway. In conclusion, this study shows that B. breve strains modulate gene expression in HT-29 cells under inflammatory conditions in a strain-specific way.

Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults.

A good definition of commensal microflora and an understanding of its relation to health are essential in preventing and combating disease. We hypothesized that the species richness of human oral microflora is underestimated. Saliva and supragingival plaque were sampled from 71 and 98 healthy adults, respectively. Amplicons from the V6 hypervariable region of the small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene were generated by PCR, pooled into saliva and plaque pools, and sequenced by means of the Genome Sequencer 20 system at 454 Life Sciences. Data were evaluated by taxonomic and rarefaction analyses. The 197,600 sequences generated yielded about 29,000 unique sequences, representing 22 taxonomic phyla. Grouping the sequences in operational taxonomic units (6%) yielded 3621 and 6888 species-level phylotypes in saliva and plaque, respectively. This work gives a radically new insight into the diversity of human oral microflora, which, with an estimated number of 19,000 phylotypes, is considerably higher than previously reported.