DNA methylation epi-signature is associated with two molecularly and phenotypically distinct clinical subtypes of Phelan-McDermid syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Phelan-McDermid syndrome is characterized by a range of neurodevelopmental phenotypes with incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity. It is caused by a variable size and breakpoint microdeletions in the distal long arm of chromosome 22, referred to as 22q13.3 deletion syndrome, including the SHANK3 gene. Genetic defects in a growing number of neurodevelopmental genes have been shown to cause genome-wide disruptions in epigenomic profiles referred to as epi-signatures in affected individuals. RESULTS: In this study we assessed genome-wide DNA methylation profiles in a cohort of 22 individuals with Phelan-McDermid syndrome, including 11 individuals with large (2 to 5.8 Mb) 22q13.3 deletions, 10 with small deletions (< 1 Mb) or intragenic variants in SHANK3 and one mosaic case. We describe a novel genome-wide DNA methylation epi-signature in a subset of individuals with Phelan-McDermid syndrome. CONCLUSION: We identified the critical region including the BRD1 gene as responsible for the Phelan-McDermid syndrome epi-signature. Metabolomic profiles of individuals with the DNA methylation epi-signature showed significantly different metabolomic profiles indicating evidence of two molecularly and phenotypically distinct clinical subtypes of Phelan-McDermid syndrome.

Behavioral inhibition in childhood predicts smaller hippocampal volume in adolescent offspring of parents with panic disorder.

Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a genetically influenced behavioral profile seen in 15-20% of 2-year-old children. Children with BI are timid with people, objects and situations that are novel or unfamiliar, and are more reactive physiologically to these challenges as evidenced by higher heart rate, pupillary dilation, vocal cord tension and higher levels of cortisol. BI predisposes to the later development of anxiety, depression and substance abuse. Reduced hippocampal volumes have been observed in anxiety disorders, depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Animal models have demonstrated that chronic stress can damage the hippocampal formation and implicated cortisol in these effects. We, therefore, hypothesized that the hippocampi of late adolescents who had been behaviorally inhibited as children would be smaller compared with those who had not been inhibited. Hippocampal volume was measured with high-resolution structural magnetic resonance imaging in 43 females and 40 males at 17 years of age who were determined to be BI+ or BI- based on behaviors observed in the laboratory as young children. BI in childhood predicted reduced hippocampal volumes in the adolescents who were offspring of parents with panic disorder, or panic disorder with comorbid major depression. We discuss genetic and environmental factors emanating from both child and parent that may explain these findings. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate a relationship between the most extensively studied form of temperamentally based human trait anxiety, BI, and hippocampal structure. The reduction in hippocampal volume, as reported by us, suggests a role for the hippocampus in human trait anxiety and anxiety disorder that warrants further investigation.

The RBMX gene as a candidate for the Shashi X-linked intellectual disability syndrome.

A novel X-linked intellectual disability (XLID) syndrome with moderate intellectual disability and distinguishing craniofacial dysmorphisms had been previously mapped to the Xq26-q27 interval. On whole exome sequencing in the large family originally reported with this disorder, we identified a 23 bp frameshift deletion in the RNA binding motif protein X-linked (RBMX) gene at Xq26 in the affected males (n = 7), one carrier female, absent in unaffected males (n = 2) and in control databases (7800 exomes). The RBMX gene has not been previously causal of human disease. We examined the genic intolerance scores for the coding regions and the non-coding regions of RBMX; the findings were indicative of RBMX being relatively intolerant to loss of function variants, a distinctive pattern seen in a subset of XLID genes. Prior expression and animal modeling studies indicate that loss of function of RBMX results in abnormal brain development. Our finding putatively adds a novel gene to the loci associated with XLID and may enable the identification of other individuals affected with this distinctive syndrome.

Alpha-thalassemia intellectual disability: variable phenotypic expression among males with a recurrent nonsense mutation - c.109C>T (p.R37X).

Alpha-thalassemia intellectual disability, one of the recognizable X-linked disability syndromes, is characterized by short stature, microcephaly, distinctive facies, hypotonic appearance, cardiac and genital anomalies, and marked skewing of X-inactivation in female carriers. With the advent of next generation sequencing, mutations have been identified that result in less severe phenotypes lacking one or more of these phenotypic manifestations. Here we report five unrelated kindreds in which a c.109C>T (p.R37X) mutation segregates with a variable but overall milder phenotype. The distinctive facial appearance of alpha-thalassemia intellectual disability was present in only one of the 18 affected males evaluated beyond the age of puberty, although suggestive facial appearance was present in several during infancy or early childhood. Although the responsible genetic alteration is a nonsense mutation in exon 2 of ATRX, the phenotype appears to be partially rescued by the production of alternative transcripts and/or other molecular mechanisms.

Neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders represent an interconnected molecular system.

Many putative genetic factors that confer risk to neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and X-linked intellectual disability (XLID), and to neuropsychiatric disorders including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and schizophrenia (SZ) have been identified in individuals from diverse human populations. Although there is significant aetiological heterogeneity within and between these conditions, recent data show that genetic factors contribute to their comorbidity. Many studies have identified candidate gene associations for these mental health disorders, albeit this is often done in a piecemeal fashion with little regard to the inherent molecular complexity. Here, we sought to abstract relationships from our knowledge of systems level biology to help understand the unique and common genetic drivers of these conditions. We undertook a global and systematic approach to build and integrate available data in gene networks associated with ASDs, XLID, ADHD and SZ. Complex network concepts and computational methods were used to investigate whether candidate genes associated with these conditions were related through mechanisms of gene regulation, functional protein-protein interactions, transcription factor (TF) and microRNA (miRNA) binding sites. Although our analyses show that genetic variations associated with the four disorders can occur in the same molecular pathways and functional domains, including synaptic transmission, there are patterns of variation that define significant differences between disorders. Of particular interest is DNA variations located in intergenic regions that comprise regulatory sites for TFs or miRNA. Our approach provides a hypothetical framework, which will help discovery and analysis of candidate genes associated with neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Phenotype and genotype in 101 males with X-linked creatine transporter deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Creatine transporter deficiency is a monogenic cause of X-linked intellectual disability. Since its first description in 2001 several case reports have been published but an overview of phenotype, genotype and phenotype--genotype correlation has been lacking. METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of clinical, biochemical and molecular genetic data of 101 males with X-linked creatine transporter deficiency from 85 families with a pathogenic mutation in the creatine transporter gene (SLC6A8). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Most patients developed moderate to severe intellectual disability; mild intellectual disability was rare in adult patients. Speech language development was especially delayed but almost a third of the patients were able to speak in sentences. Besides behavioural problems and seizures, mild to moderate motor dysfunction, including extrapyramidal movement abnormalities, and gastrointestinal problems were frequent clinical features. Urinary creatine to creatinine ratio proved to be a reliable screening method besides MR spectroscopy, molecular genetic testing and creatine uptake studies, allowing definition of diagnostic guidelines. A third of patients had a de novo mutation in the SLC6A8 gene. Mothers with an affected son with a de novo mutation should be counselled about a recurrence risk in further pregnancies due to the possibility of low level somatic or germline mosaicism. Missense mutations with residual activity might be associated with a milder phenotype and large deletions extending beyond the 3' end of the SLC6A8 gene with a more severe phenotype. Evaluation of the biochemical phenotype revealed unexpected high creatine levels in cerebrospinal fluid suggesting that the brain is able to synthesise creatine and that the cerebral creatine deficiency is caused by a defect in the reuptake of creatine within the neurones.

Short-term memory deficits in carrier females with KDM5C mutations.

We present the cognitive abilities of females from five families who carry a mutation in a gene (KDM5C, formerly JARIDIC or SMCX) in Xp 11.2 that encodes a transcriptional regulator with histone demethylase activity that is specific for dimethylated and trimethylated H3K4. In this report, the cognitive abilities of females who carry KDMSC mutations are compared to females who carry mutations in other genes known to cause X-linked intellectual and developmental disability (XLIDD) conditions. The KDM5C mutation carriers had higher mean scores on the abstract/visual and quantitative sections of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition and lower mean short term memory scores. Implications for counseling are presented.

A phenotype of early infancy predicts reactivity of the amygdala in male adults.

One of the central questions that has occupied those disciplines concerned with human development is the nature of continuities and discontinuities from birth to maturity. The amygdala has a central role in the processing of novelty and emotion in the brain. Although there is considerable variability among individuals in the reactivity of the amygdala to novel and emotional stimuli, the origin of these individual differences is not well understood. Four-month old infants called high reactive (HR) demonstrate a distinctive pattern of vigorous motor activity and crying to specific unfamiliar visual, auditory and olfactory stimuli in the laboratory. Low-reactive infants show the complementary pattern. Here, we demonstrate that the HR infant phenotype predicts greater amygdalar reactivity to novel faces almost two decades later in adults. A prediction of individual differences in brain function at maturity can be made on the basis of a single behavioral assessment made in the laboratory at 4 months of age. This is the earliest known human behavioral phenotype that predicts individual differences in patterns of neural activity at maturity. These temperamental differences rooted in infancy may be relevant to understanding individual differences in vulnerability and resilience to clinical psychiatric disorder. Males who were HR infants showed particularly high levels of reactivity to novel faces in the amygdala that distinguished them as adults from all other sex/temperament subgroups, suggesting that their amygdala is particularly prone to engagement by unfamiliar faces. These findings underline the importance of taking gender into account when studying the developmental neurobiology of human temperament and anxiety disorders. The genetic study of behavioral and biologic intermediate phenotypes (or 'endophenotypes') indexing anxiety-proneness offers an important alternative to examining phenotypes based on clinically defined disorder. As the HR phenotype is characterized by specific patterns of reactivity to elemental visual, olfactory and auditory stimuli, well before complex social behaviors such as shyness or fearful interaction with strangers can be observed, it may be closer to underlying neurobiological mechanisms than behavioral profiles observed later in life. This possibility, together with the fact that environmental factors have less time to impact the 4-month phenotype, suggests that this temperamental profile may be a fruitful target for high-risk genetic studies.

Two percent of patients suspected of having Angelman syndrome have TCF4 mutations.

The TCF4 gene encodes a basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factor which belongs to the family of E-proteins. E-proteins form homo- and heterodimers with other members of the HLH family and bind to the common DNA sequence called E-box. Haploinsufficiency of the TCF4 gene has been found to be associated with the Pitt-Hopkins syndrome (PTHS). PTHS is characterized by severe mental retardation, a wide mouth plus other distinctive facial features (fleshy lips, beaked nose, broad nasal bridge) and breathing abnormalities. Because of some phenotypical overlap with Angelman syndrome (AS), it has been suggested that PTHS be considered in its differential diagnosis. To explore this possibility, we screened 86 patients who were suspected of having AS. All the patients were negative for UBE3A testing, and 53 were known to be negative for methylation analysis. We identified two TCF4 mutations in this cohort. The p.S384Tfsx7 mutation lacks the bHLH domain. The p.R582P mutation lies within the bHLH domain in which seven other missense mutations have been reported. Both mutations most likely affect the critical function of the bHLH domain of the TCF4 protein. In summary, we found two TCF4 mutations in 86 patients (2%) suspected to have AS. Screening for mutations in this gene should be considered in patients who present with findings of AS but who have been negative for methylation and UBE3A testing.

A missense mutation, p.V132G, in the X-linked spermine synthase gene (SMS) causes Snyder-Robinson syndrome.

Snyder-Robinson syndrome (SRS, OMIM 309583) is a rare X-linked syndrome characterized by mental retardation, marfanoid habitus, skeletal defects, osteoporosis, and facial asymmetry. Linkage analysis localized the related gene to Xp21.3-p22.12, and a G-to-A transition at point +5 of intron 4 of the spermine synthase gene, which caused truncation of the SMS protein and loss of enzyme activity, was identified in the original family. Here we describe another family with Snyder-Robinson syndrome in two Mexican brothers and a novel mutation (c.496T>G) in the exon 5 of the SMS gene confirming its involvement in this rare X-linked mental retardation syndrome.

Clinical experience in the evaluation of 30 patients with a prior diagnosis of FG syndrome.

BACKGROUND: FG syndrome (FGS) is an X-linked disorder characterised by mental retardation, hypotonia, particular dysmorphic facial features, broad thumbs and halluces, anal anomalies, constipation, and abnormalities of the corpus callosum. A behavioural phenotype of hyperactivity, affability, and excessive talkativeness is very frequent. The spectrum of clinical findings attributed to FGS has widened considerably since the initial description of the syndrome by Opitz and Kaveggia in 1974 and has resulted in clinical variability and genetic heterogeneity. In 2007, a recurrent R961W mutation in the MED12 gene at Xq13 was found to cause FGS in six families, including the original family described by Opitz and Kaveggia. The phenotype was highly consistent in all the R961W positive patients. METHODS: In order to determine the prevalence of MED12 mutations in patients clinically diagnosed with FGS and to clarify the phenotypic spectrum of FGS, 30 individuals diagnosed previously with FGS were evaluated clinically and by MED12 sequencing. RESULTS: The R961W mutation was identified in the only patient who had the typical phenotype previously associated with this mutation. The remaining 29 patients displayed a wide variety of features and were shown to be negative for mutations in the entire MED12 gene. A definite or possible alternative diagnosis was identified in 10 of these patients. CONCLUSION: This report illustrates the difficulty in making a clinical diagnosis of FGS given the broad spectrum of signs and symptoms that have been attributed to the syndrome. Individuals with a phenotype consistent with FGS require a thorough genetic evaluation including MED12 mutation analysis. Further genetic testing should be considered in those who test negative for a MED12 mutation to search for an alternative diagnosis.

ARHGEF9 disruption in a female patient is associated with X linked mental retardation and sensory hyperarousal.

We identified a female patient with mental retardation and sensory hyperarousal. She has a de novo paracentric inversion of one X chromosome with completely skewed inactivation of the normal X chromosome. We aimed to identify whether a single gene or gene region caused her cognitive and behavioural impairment and that of others. Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) showed that the centromeric breakpoint disrupts a single gene: ARHGEF9 (CDC42 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) 9). We also found that the levels of the ARHGEF9 transcript from the patient are 10-fold less than those found in control samples. ARHGEF9 encodes a RhoGEF family protein: collybistin (hPEM), which is highly expressed in the brain. Collybistin can regulate actin cytoskeletal dynamics and may also modulate GABAergic and glycinergic neurotransmission through binding of a scaffolding protein, gephyrin, at the synapse. This potential dual role may explain both the mental retardation and hyperarousal observed in our patient.

Mutations in JARID1C are associated with X-linked mental retardation, short stature and hyperreflexia.

BACKGROUND: Mutations in the JARID1C (Jumonji AT-rich interactive domain 1C) gene were recently associated with X-linked mental retardation (XLMR). Mutations in this gene are reported to be one of the relatively more common causes of XLMR with a frequency of approximately 3% in males with proven or probable XLMR. The JARID1C protein functions as a histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4) demethylase and is involved in the demethylation of H3K4me3 and H3K4me2. METHODS: Mutation analysis of the JARID1C gene was conducted in the following cohorts: probands from 23 XLMR families linked to Xp11.2, 92 males with mental retardation and short stature, and 172 probands from small XLMR families with no linkage information. RESULTS: Four novel mutations consisting of two missense mutations, p.A77T and p.V504M, and two frame shift mutations, p.E468fsX2 and p.R1481fsX9, were identified in males with mental retardation. Two of the mutations, p.V504M and p.E468fsX2, are located in the JmjC domain of the JARID1C gene where no previous mutations have been reported. Additional studies showed that the missense mutation, p.V504M, was a de novo event on the grandpaternal X chromosome of the family. Clinical findings of the nine affected males from the four different families included mental retardation (100%), short stature (55%), hyperreflexia (78%), seizures (33%) and aggressive behaviour (44%). The degree of mental retardation consisted of mild (25%), moderate (12%) and severe (63%). CONCLUSION: Based on the clinical observations, male patients with mental retardation, short stature and hyperreflexia should be considered candidates for mutations in the JARID1C gene.

Clinical and molecular delineation of the 17q21.31 microdeletion syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The chromosome 17q21.31 microdeletion syndrome is a novel genomic disorder that has originally been identified using high resolution genome analyses in patients with unexplained mental retardation. AIM: We report the molecular and/or clinical characterisation of 22 individuals with the 17q21.31 microdeletion syndrome. RESULTS: We estimate the prevalence of the syndrome to be 1 in 16,000 and show that it is highly underdiagnosed. Extensive clinical examination reveals that developmental delay, hypotonia, facial dysmorphisms including a long face, a tubular or pear-shaped nose and a bulbous nasal tip, and a friendly/amiable behaviour are the most characteristic features. Other clinically important features include epilepsy, heart defects and kidney/urologic anomalies. Using high resolution oligonucleotide arrays we narrow the 17q21.31 critical region to a 424 kb genomic segment (chr17: 41046729-41470954, hg17) encompassing at least six genes, among which is the gene encoding microtubule associated protein tau (MAPT). Mutation screening of MAPT in 122 individuals with a phenotype suggestive of 17q21.31 deletion carriers, but who do not carry the recurrent deletion, failed to identify any disease associated variants. In five deletion carriers we identify a <500 bp rearrangement hotspot at the proximal breakpoint contained within an L2 LINE motif and show that in every case examined the parent originating the deletion carries a common 900 kb 17q21.31 inversion polymorphism, indicating that this inversion is a necessary factor for deletion to occur (p<10(-5)). CONCLUSION: Our data establish the 17q21.31 microdeletion syndrome as a clinically and molecularly well recognisable genomic disorder.

New SMS mutation leads to a striking reduction in spermine synthase protein function and a severe form of Snyder-Robinson X-linked recessive mental retardation syndrome.

We report the identification of a novel mutation at a highly conserved residue within the N-terminal region of spermine synthase (SMS) in a second family with Snyder-Robinson X-linked mental retardation syndrome (OMIM 309583). This missense mutation, p.G56S, greatly reduces SMS activity and leads to severe epilepsy and cognitive impairment. Our findings contribute to a better delineation and expansion of the clinical spectrum of Snyder-Robinson syndrome, support the important role of the N-terminus in the function of the SMS protein, and provide further evidence for the importance of SMS activity in the development of intellectual processing and other aspects of human development.

ARHGEF9 disruption in a female patient is associated with X linked mental retardation and sensory hyperarousal.

INTRODUCTION: We identified a female patient with mental retardation and sensory hyperarousal. She has a de novo paracentric inversion of one X chromosome with completely skewed inactivation of the normal X chromosome. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to identify whether a single gene or gene region caused her cognitive and behavioural impairment and that of others. RESULTS: Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) showed that the centromeric breakpoint disrupts a single gene: ARHGEF9 (CDC42 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) 9). The telomeric break lies in a gene poor region. We also found that the levels of the ARHGEF9 transcript from the patient are 10-fold less than those found in control samples. Consequently, we sequenced the coding exons and intron/exon borders of the ARHGEF9 gene in 99 probands from families with X linked mental retardation (XLMR) and 477 mentally retarded males in whom a diagnosis of Fragile X syndrome had been excluded. We did not identify any pathogenic changes; however, we did identify intronic nucleotide changes that might alter splicing. CONCLUSION: ARHGEF9 encodes a RhoGEF family protein: collybistin (hPEM), which is highly expressed in the developing and adult brain. Collybistin can regulate actin cytoskeletal dynamics and may also modulate GABAergic and glycinergic neurotransmission through binding of a scaffolding protein, gephyrin, at the synapse. This potential dual role may explain both the mental retardation and hyperarousal observed in our patient. While ARHGEF9 appears to be an uncommon cause of mental retardation in males, it should be considered in patients with mental retardation and sensory hyperarousal.

A novel mutation in the PHF8 gene is associated with X-linked mental retardation with cleft lip/cleft palate.

Recently, two truncating mutations in the PHF8 (plant homeodomain finger protein 8) gene have been found to cause X-linked mental retardation associated with cleft lip/cleft palate (CL/P). One of the truncating mutations was found in the original family with Siderius-Hamel CL/P syndrome where only two of the three affected individuals had mental retardation (MR) with CL/P and one individual had mild MR. The second mutation was present in a family with four affected men, three of whom had MR and CL/P, while the fourth individual had mild MR without clefting. Here, we report a novel nonsense mutation (p.K177X) in a male patient who has MR associated with CL/P. The mutation results in a truncated PHF8 protein lacking the Jumonji-like C terminus domain and five nuclear localization signals. Our finding further supports the hypothesis that the PHF8 protein may play an important role in cognitive function and midline formation.

Mutation and evolutionary analyses identify NR2E1-candidate-regulatory mutations in humans with severe cortical malformations.

Nuclear receptor 2E1 (NR2E1) is expressed in human fetal and adult brains; however, its role in human brain-behavior development is unknown. Previously, we have corrected the cortical hypoplasia and behavioral abnormalities in Nr2e1(-/-) mice using a genomic clone spanning human NR2E1, which bolsters the hypothesis that NR2E1 may similarly play a role in human cortical and behavioral development. To test the hypothesis that humans with abnormal brain-behavior development may have null or hypomorphic NR2E1 mutations, we undertook the first candidate mutation screen of NR2E1 by sequencing its entire coding region, untranslated, splice site, proximal promoter and evolutionarily conserved non-coding regions in 56 unrelated patients with cortical disorders, namely microcephaly. We then genotyped the candidate mutations in 325 unrelated control subjects and 15 relatives. We did not detect any coding region changes in NR2E1; however, we identified seven novel candidate regulatory mutations that were absent from control subjects. We used in silico tools to predict the effects of these candidate mutations on neural transcription factor binding sites (TFBS). Four candidate mutations were predicted to alter TFBS. To facilitate the present and future studies of NR2E1, we also elucidated its molecular evolution, genetic diversity, haplotype structure and linkage disequilibrium by sequencing an additional 94 unaffected humans representing Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Oceania, as well as great apes and monkeys. We detected strong purifying selection, low genetic diversity, 21 novel polymorphisms and five common haplotypes at NR2E1. We conclude that protein-coding changes in NR2E1 do not contribute to cortical and behavioral abnormalities in the patients examined here, but that regulatory mutations may play a role.