Expression Of Intracellular Components of the NF-κB Alternative Pathway (NF-κB2, RelB, NIK and Bcl3) is Associated With Clinical Outcome of NSCLC Patients.

A growing number of studies has shed light on the role of the NF-κΒ in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). To address the significance of major effectors of the NF-κΒ alternative pathway, we investigated the relationship between NF-κΒ2, RelB, NIK and Bcl3 expression (mRNA and protein) and the clinical outcome of NSCLC patients. NF-κΒ2, RelB, NIK and Bcl3 protein expression levels were assessed by immunohistochemistry in tissue samples from 151 NSCLC patients who had curative resection. mRNA levels were also evaluated in 69 patients using quantitative real-time PCR. Although all studied proteins were overexpressed in NSCLC (P < 0.001 for all), only RelB mRNA levels were strongly increased in cancerous specimens compared to tumor-adjacent non-neoplastic tissues (P = 0.009). Moreover, NF-κB2, RelB and Bcl3 expression was associated with overall survival (OS). In particular, cytoplasmic and mRNA expression of RelB was related to 5-year OS (P = 0.014 and P = 0.006, respectively). Multivariate analysis also showed that Bcl3 expression (nuclear and cytoplasmic) was associated with increased 5-year OS (P = 0.002 and P = 0.036, respectively). In addition, higher Bcl3 mRNA levels were associated with inferior OS in stages I & II and improved OS in stages III and IV after 5-year follow-up (P = 0.004 and P = 0.001, respectively). Furthermore, stage I patients with lower NF-κB2 mRNA levels had better 5-year survival in univariate and multivariate analysis (P = 0.031 and P = 0.028, respectively). Interestingly, RelB expression (cytoplasmic and mRNA) was inversely associated with relapse rates (P = 0.027 and P = 0.015, respectively), while low NIK cytoplasmic expression was associated with lower relapse rates (P = 0.019). Cytoplasmic NIK expression as well as NF-κB2/ Bcl3 detection was associated with lymph node infiltration (P = 0.039 and P = 0.014, respectively). The present study confirms the deregulation of the NF-κB alternative pathway in NSCLC and also demonstrates the importance of this pathway in prognosis, recurrence and infiltration of regional lymph nodes.

Expression of Immune System-Related Membrane Receptors CD40, RANK, BAFFR and LTßR is Associated with Clinical Outcome of Operated Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Patients.

An increasing number of studies implicates the NF-κB (Nuclear Factor of kappa light chain gene enhancer in B cells) alternative pathway in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We assessed the clinical significance of CD40 (Tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member 5, TNFRSF5), BAFFR (B-cell activating factor receptor), RANK (Receptor activator of NF-κB) and LTßR (lymphotoxin ß receptor) receptors, which activate the alternative pathway of NF-κB, in NSCLC. Evaluation of CD40, BAFFR, RANK and LTßR expression was performed based on the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) datasets, while protein expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry in specimens from 119 operated NSCLC patients. CD40 gene overexpression was correlated with improved five-year overall survival (OS) (p < 0.001), while increased BAFFR and LTßR mRNA levels were associated with worse OS in patients with adenocarcinomas (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). Similarly, patients with adenocarcinomas exhibited a negative correlation between membranous BAFFR protein expression in carcinoma cells and three- and five-year survival (p = 0.021; HR, 4.977 and p = 0.030; HR, 3.358, respectively) as well as between BAFFR protein overexpression in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and two-year survival (p = 0.036; HR, 1.983). Patients with increased LTßR nuclear protein staining or stage II patients with lower cytoplasmic LTßR protein expression had worse five-year OS (p = 0.039 and p = 0.008, respectively). Moreover, CD40 protein expression in tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and CAFs was positively associated with metastatic spread while BAFFR protein expression in CAFs was negatively associated with bone metastasis (p = 0.041). Our data suggests that CD40, BAFFR, RANK and LTßR play an important role in NSCLC and further supports the role of NF-κB alternative pathway in NSCLC.

NF-kB2 Genetic Variations are Significantly Associated with Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Risk and Overall Survival.

During the last decade, a growing number of publications implicate NF-kB2 in NSCLC pathogenesis. Here, we investigated the clinical relevance of NF-kB2 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs7897947, rs11574852 and rs12769316 in NSCLC and their association with NF-kB2 protein and mRNA levels. Our data show that TT (rs7897947T >G) and AA (rs12769316G >A) genotypes were strongly associated with an increased risk for NSCLC (P = 0.019 and P = 0.003, respectively). Additionally, in multivariate analysis, TT (rs7897947T >G) homozygosity was associated with worse 2- and 3-year survival rates (P = 0.030 and P = 0.028, respectively), especially among patients with stages III/IV, who had worse 2, 3 and 5-year survival (P = 0.001, P = 0.022 and P = 0.035, respectively). In chemotherapy-treated patients, TT (rs12769316G >A) homozygosity was also associated with worse 2- and 3-year survival compared to G allele carriers (P = 0.006 and P = 0.014, respectively). Furthermore, rs12769316 was correlated with survival outcome of stage I and II patients (P = 0.031 and P = 0.006, respectively). Interestingly, amongst the patients who developed metastases, A allele carriers had better 5-year survival (P = 0.020). In addition, rs12769316 was associated with NF-kB2 protein (P = 0.001) and mRNA expression (P = 0.017) as well as with tumor maximum diameter (P = 0.025). Overall, this study suggests that rs7897947 and rs12769316 are involved in NSCLC susceptibility, in treatment response and in clinical outcome.

HER Family Protein Expression in a Greek Population with Gastric Cancer. A Retrospective Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group Study.

BACKGROUND: Gastric cancer is a relatively common malignancy. Recently, the presence of the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) was identified as a molecular target in a proportion of patients who benefited from the addition of appropriate anti-HER2 treatments. Our study explored the clinical and prognostic role of known HER family members, human epidermal growth factor receptor 1 (EGFR or HER1), HER2, HER3 and HER4. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tumor tissue samples from 249 gastric cancer patients were studied by immunohistochemistry for protein expression of EGFR, HER2, HER3 and HER4. RESULTS: Of the 249 evaluable patients, 32 did not have complete data of treatment details and/or follow-up and were excluded from the survival analyses. Of the 217 patients with complete treatment and follow-up data, 178 were operated and treated for early disease (group 1), while 39 for advanced disease (group 2). The frequency of positive EGFR, HER2, HER3 and HER4 protein expression in all patients was 17.5%, 11.8%, 14.8% and 32.9%, respectively. There were no differences in protein expression of any of the markers between the two groups. There were, however, statistically significant associations between HER4 and all other HER family members, as well as between HER2 and HER3 expression. Of note, EGFR-positive membranous protein expression was significantly associated with the presence of lymphovascular invasion (p=0.027) and HER3 and HER4 negative cytoplasmic protein expression with well/moderately-differentiated tumors (p=0.030 and p=0.014, respectively). None of the HER family members were of prognostic value for OS in univariate analysis. CONCLUSION: The present study confirmed the known protein expression frequencies of HER family members in gastric cancer in a Greek population. Several associations were observed among the HER family members and between clinicopathological characteristics and HER family members. Further research is needed on their exact prognostic role, as well as their therapeutic targeting.

Significance of PIK3CA Mutations in Patients with Early Breast Cancer Treated with Adjuvant Chemotherapy: A Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group (HeCOG) Study.

BACKGROUND: The PI3K-AKT pathway is frequently activated in breast cancer. PIK3CA mutations are most frequently found in the helical (exon 9) and kinase (exon 20) domains of this protein. The aim of the present study was to examine the role of different types of PIK3CA mutations in combination with molecular biomarkers related to PI3K-AKT signaling in patients with early breast cancer. METHODS: Tumor tissue samples from 1008 early breast cancer patients treated with adjuvant chemotherapy in two similar randomized trials of HeCOG were examined. Tumors were subtyped with immunohistochemistry (IHC) and FISH for ER, PgR, Ki67, HER2 and androgen receptor (AR). PIK3CA mutations were analyzed by Sanger sequencing (exon 20) and qPCR (exon 9) (Sanger/qPCR mutations). In 610 cases, next generation sequencing (NGS) PIK3CA mutation data were also available. PIK3CA mutations and PTEN protein expression (IHC) were analyzed in luminal tumors (ER and/or PgR positive), molecular apocrine carcinomas (MAC; ER/PgR negative / AR positive) and hormone receptor (ER/PgR/AR) negative tumors. RESULTS: PIK3CA mutations were detected in 235/1008 tumors (23%) with Sanger/qPCR and in 149/610 tumors (24%) with NGS. Concordance between the two methods was good with a Kappa coefficient of 0.76 (95% CI 0.69-0.82). Lobular histology, low tumor grade and luminal A tumors were associated with helical domain mutations (PIK3CAhel), while luminal B with kinase domain mutations (PIK3CAkin). The overall incidence of PIK3CA mutations was higher in luminal as compared to MAC and hormone receptor negative tumors (p = 0.004). Disease-free and overall survival did not significantly differ with respect to PIK3CA mutation presence and type. However, a statistically significant interaction between PIK3CA mutation status and PTEN low protein expression with regard to prognosis was identified. CONCLUSIONS: The present study did not show any prognostic significance of specific PIK3CA mutations in a large group of predominantly lymph-node positive breast cancer women treated with adjuvant chemotherapy. Further analyses in larger cohorts are warranted to investigate possible differential effect of distinct PIK3CA mutations in small subgroups of patients.

Variant of BCL3 gene is strongly associated with five-year survival of non-small-cell lung cancer patients.

OBJECTIVES: BCL3, a known atypical IκB family member, has been documented to be upregulated in hematological malignancies and in some solid tumors, functioning as a crucial player in tumor development. Recently, rs8100239, a tag-Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) in BCL3 (T>A) has been identified, but there are no data regarding its involvement in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) initiation and progression. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To study the possible association of BCL3 with NSCLC, 268 patients and 279 healthy controls were genotyped for rs8100239. Moreover, BCL3 protein expression was also investigated in 112 NSCLC cases through an immunohistochemical analysis. RESULTS: NSCLC patients with AA genotype displayed significantly worse prognosis compared to T allele carriers (P<0.001), who had less frequent intermediate nuclear BCL3 expression (P=0.042). In addition, overexpression of BCL3 was detected in tumor specimens, compared to normal tissue (P<0.001). Furthermore, BCL3 protein levels were associated with five-year survival (P=0.039), maximum diameter of lesion (P=0.012), grade (P=0.002) and relapse frequency (P=0.041). CONCLUSIONS: The present study is the first to show a relationship between the genetic variation rs8100239 of BCL3 and cancer patients' survival. It also represents the first quantitative evaluation of BCL3 expression in NSCLC. Our findings indicate that rs8100239 may be considered as a novel prognostic indicator, demonstrating also the overexpression of BCL3 protein in NSCLC and implicating this pivotal molecule in the pathogenesis of NSCLC.

Prognostic Significance of VEGFC and VEGFR1 mRNA Expression According to HER2 Status in Breast Cancer: A Study of Primary Tumors from Patients with High-risk Early Breast Cancer Participating in a Randomized Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group Trial.

BACKGROUND: Vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGFC) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 (VEGFR1) mRNA overexpression has recently been shown to have strong predictive and prognostic value in patients with high-risk early breast cancer undergoing adjuvant chemotherapy. The present study evaluated associations of VEGFC and VEGFR1 with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and their prognostic value dependent on HER2 status. PATIENTS AND METHODS: RNA was isolated from 298 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor tissue samples from the HeCOG 10/97 (HE10/97) trial, evaluating adjuvant dose-dense sequential chemotherapy with epirubicin followed by cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil therapy with or without paclitaxel (E-T-CMF vs. E-CMF). A fully-automated method based on magnetic beads was applied for RNA extraction, followed by one-step quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: At 13.3 years of median follow-up, 116 patients (38.9%) had experienced relapse and 115 (38.6%) had died. There were strong associations between VEGFC/VEGFR1 mRNA expression and HER2 and estrogen receptor/progesterone receptor status. In multivariate analysis, both VEGFC and VEGFR1 were found to be associated with risk for death or relapse, but such associations depended on HER2 status and treatment group. High VEGFC was a negative prognostic factor for disease-free survival [hazard ratio (HR)=1.79, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.05-3.05, Wald's p=0.032], with a trend for overall survival (HR=1.80, 95% CI=0.94-3.47, p=0.078) in patients treated with E-CMF adjusted for clinicopathological characteristics, while high VEGFR1 was associated with increased risk for death, yet non significantly in patients with HER2-negative disease (HR=1.51, 95% CI=0.82-2.77, p=0.18), regardless of treatment. CONCLUSION: VEGFC and VEGFR1 mRNA overexpression is of prognostic value, dependent on HER2 status, in patients with high-risk early breast cancer undergoing adjuvant treatment. Among HER2-negative cases, these angiogenic markers could identify more aggressive tumors with worse prognosis. Further studies are warranted to validate VEGFC and VEGFR1 as potential biomarkers in adjuvant therapy and their use in identifying sub-groups that could benefit from anti-VEGF strategies.

Randomized phase III clinical trial comparing the combination of capecitabine and oxaliplatin (CAPOX) with the combination of 5-fluorouracil, leucovorin and oxaliplatin (modified FOLFOX6) as adjuvant therapy in patients with operated high-risk stage II or stage III colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the trial was to compare two active adjuvant chemotherapy regimens in patients with early stage colorectal cancer (CRC). METHODS: Patients were assigned to oxaliplatin, leucovorin and 5-FU for 12 cycles (group A, FOLFOX6) or oxaliplatin and capecitabine for eight cycles (group B, CAPOX). Primary endpoint was disease-free survival (DFS). Tumors were classified as mismatch repair proficient (pMMR) or deficient (dMMR) according to MLH1, PMS2, MSH2 and MSH6 protein expression. KRAS exon two and BRAF V600E mutational status were also assessed. RESULTS: Between 2005 and 2008, 441 patients were enrolled, with 408 patients being eligible. After a median follow-up of 74.7 months, 3-year DFS was 79.8 % (95 % CI 76.5-83.4) in the FOLFOX group and 79.5 % (95 % CI 75.9-83.1) in the CAPOX group (p = 0.78). Three-year OS was 87.2 % (95 % CI 84.1-91.1) in the FOLFOX and 86.9 % (95 % CI 83.4-89.9) in the CAPOX group (p = 0.84). Among 306 available tumors, 11.0 % were dMMR, 34.0 % KRAS mutant and 4.9 % BRAF mutant. Multivariate analysis showed that primary site in the left colon, earlier TNM stage and the presence of anemia at diagnosis were associated with better DFS and overall survival (OS), while grade one-two tumors were associated with better OS. Finally, a statistically significant interaction was detected between the primary site and MMR status (p = 0.010), while KRAS mutated tumors were associated with shorter DFS. However, the sample was too small for safe conclusions. CONCLUSIONS: No significant differences were observed in the efficacy of FOLFOX versus CAPOX as adjuvant treatment in high-risk stage II or stage III CRC patients, but definitive conclusions cannot be drawn because of the small sample size. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ANZCTR 12610000509066 . Date of Registration: June 21, 2010.

Expression of phosphorylated Akt, mTOR and MAPK in type I endometrial carcinoma: clinical significance.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The Akt/mTOR and MAPK pathways are frequently activated in various tumor types but data on endometrial carcinoma are limited. The aim of the present study was to investigate the clinical significance of the expression of phosphorylated MAPK, Akt and mTOR (p-MAPK, p-Akt, p-mTOR) in type I endometrial carcinoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study comprised of 103 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) type I endometrial carcino ma cases, retrospectively retrieved and assessed by immuno histochemistry for p-MAPK, p-Akt and p-mTOR expression. The expression of these proteins was also studied in non-neoplastic endometrial tissue adjacent to the tumor. RESULTS: The expression patterns of these molecules differed between malignant and non-tumorous tissue specimens. The immuno reactivity for p-Akt was exclusively detected in the neoplastic tissues. Expression levels of p-MAPK were higher in tumors compared to non-neoplastic endometrium (p<0.001), while p-mTOR was found to be over-expressed in non-neo plastic endometrium compared to carcinomas (p=0.001). Expression of p-Akt was correlated with p-MAPK protein levels (p=0.022, r=0.229). On the other hand, no association was found with clinicopathological parameters and with disease-free (DFS) or overall survival (OS) of the patients. CONCLUSION: Our findings support the de-regulation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MAPK signaling pathways in type I endometrial carcinomas suggesting involvement of these pivotal pathways in endometrial carcinogenesis.

Impact of tumor angiogenic profile on the outcome of patients with metastatic breast carcinoma treated with weekly docetaxel. A Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group (HeCOG) study.

BACKGROUND: Metronomic taxane administration has putative antiangiogenic properties. Herein, we examined the baseline tumor angiogenic profile of patients with metastatic breast carcinoma (MBC) in a prospective-retrospective translational research study. The interplay between the angiogenic factors expressed in the tumors and their prognostic value in MBC were investigated. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Tumor tissues from patients with MBC treated with weekly docetaxel (n=159) were examined by immunohistochemistry for VEGF-A, VEGF-C, VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, VEGFR-3 and osteopontin (OPN) and by mRNA analysis for expression of VEGF-A, VEGFxxxa, VEGFxxxb, VEGF-C, thrombospondin-1 (THBS-1), hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) genes. Associations between these parameters and outcome were statistically analyzed. RESULTS: Statistically significant correlations were identified between almost all biomarkers examined in continuous form, particularly at the mRNA level: VEGF-A with VEGFxxxa (rho=0.70); VEGF-C with VEGFxxxa, VEGFxxxb and VHL (rho=0.51, 0.60 and 0.44 respectively); HIF-1α with VEGF-C and THBS1 (rho= 0.48 and 0.45). High VEGF-A mRNA was associated with worse survival (p=0.0279) and marginally with progression free survival (PFS). Intratumoral co-expression of VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 proteins was associated with more favorable survival (p=0.0337). In multivariate analysis, only high VEGF-A mRNA levels retained their prognostic role for worse PFS and survival (PFS: HR=2.34, 95% CI=1.25-4.40, p=0.0080; survival: HR=3.15, 95% CI=1.48-6.72, p=0.0029). CONCLUSIONS: In MBC, this study confirms the adverse prognostic effect of high intratumoral VEGF-A mRNA and reveals the combined VEGFR-1/VEGFR-2 protein expression as a potentially favorable prognosticator, which merits further evaluation in larger studies.

Expression patterns of SDF1/CXCR4 in human invasive breast carcinoma and adjacent normal stroma: correlation with tumor clinicopathological parameters and patient survival.

SDF-1/CXCR4 axis is involved in various steps of breast tumorigenesis such as tumor growth, angiogenesis and metastasis. The goal of the present study is to demonstrate in detail the immunohistochemical distribution of SDF-1 and CXCR4 in invasive breast carcinomas and identify possible correlation of their expression patterns with clinicopathological parameters and patients survival. We investigated the immunoexpression of CXCR4 and SDF1 in 76 invasive breast carcinomas. Both SDF-1 and CXCR4 had statistically significant higher expression in carcinomas compared with adjacent normal breast tissue. Furthermore the expression of CXCR4 in intratumoral fibroblasts had a positive correlation with overall and disease-free survival, while SDF1 membranous immunopositivity in normal breast epithelial cells was a risk factor for relapse. In addition, expression of SDF1 in fibroblasts of normal breast tissue was positively associated with tumor grade. Overall, our results suggest that the differential expression of CXCR4 in intratumoral stroma and SDF1 in adjacent normal mammary cells may predict clinical outcome in breast cancer patients.

Expression of claudins-1, -4, -5, -7 and occludin in hepatocellular carcinoma and their relation with classic clinicopathological features and patients' survival.

BACKGROUND: Occludin and claudins are integral constituents of tight junction proteins and are de-regulated in various malignancies, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). This study investigated whether expression of claudins 1, 4, 5, 7 and occludin may be used as prognostic markers for overall and disease-free survival in patients with HCC after hepatectomy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study included 67 hepatectomy specimens obtained from an equal number of patients with HCC who underwent partial hepatectomy at the Patras University Hospital for therapeutic reasons. Ten normal liver tissues were used as controls. Expression of claudins 1, 4, 5, 7 and occludin in liver tissues was assessed by immunochemistry. Clinicopathological features were also available for each case. RESULTS: Expression of claudins 1, 4, 5, 7 and occludin was significantly increased in HCC specimens compared to non-neoplastic liver tissues and normal controls (p<0.001 in each case) Moreover, there was a statistically significant association between low level of claudin-4 and advanced tumor grade (p=0.03). Down-regulation of claudin-1 was associated with low overall survival in univariate survival analysis (p=0.049) and Kaplan-Meier analysis (p=0.04). Multivariate analysis showed that the claudin-4 level was an independent factor for survival prognosis (p=0.01). In addition, down-regulation of claudin-4 expression was associated with increased recurrence rate and low disease-free survival rate in univariate analysis (p=0.038), Kaplan-Meier plot (p=0.013) and multivariate analysis (p=0.013). A low level of claudin-5 and high level of claudin-7 levels were independent negative prognostic factors according to multivariate analysis (p=0.015 and 0.009, respectively). CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrates that high expression of claudins 1, 4, 5 and down-regulation of claudin-7 are positive prognostic markers and are associated with good outcome and increased survival rates. Moreover, an increase in claudin-4 expression may serve as an independent positive prognostic factor for low recurrence rate after hepatectomy.

The prognostic role of preoperative serum CA 125 levels in patients with endometrial carcinoma.

PURPOSE: Previous studies have shown that elevated preoperative serum CA 125 levels strongly correlate with various clinical and pathological variables and prognosis of patients with endometrial carcinoma (EC). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the clinical significance of preoperative serum CA 125 levels in patients with EC. METHODS: A retrospective study of all EC patients treated at our institution between 1995 and 2010 with available follow-up was conducted. The preoperative serum level of CA 125 was measured in 99 patients and evaluated in relation to various clinical and pathological variables and outcome. We used the cut-off level of 20 U/ml for CA 125 on chi-square test for categorical variables. Survival analysis was performed with the use of Kaplan Meier method, the log rank test and Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. RESULTS: In the early stages of disease the mean values of CA 125 were 35 U/ml (SD±70) for stages IA-IB and 21 U/ml (SD±29) for stage IC (Mann-Whitney test for continuous variables). In advanced stages of disease (III-IV), the values of preoperative serum CA 125 levels were statistically increased, with mean value 54 U/ml (SD±44), in comparison to stages IA-IB (p=0.02) and IC (p=0.007). According to the multivariate analysis, elevated preoperative serum CA 125 level (p=0.043) and histological tumor type (p=0.004) were independent prognostic factors for disease free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS) of patients with EC. CONCLUSION: The current study suggests that measurement of preoperative serum CA 125 is a useful clinical tool in the prognosis of patients with EC.

Targeted pathways in breast cancer: molecular and protein markers guiding therapeutic decisions.

Breast carcinoma is currently considered as a group of diseases, differing not only in histopathologic phenotype, as indicated by histologic type and grade, but also in their protein, genetic and epigenetic molecular profile. The standard of care indicates that the core information for patient management includes data on Estrogen Receptor (ER), Progesterone Receptor (PgR) and Human Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor 2 (HER2), while there is an emerging role for the proliferation marker Ki67. These indices can be provided even in low resource settings and are indispensable for prognostication and therapeutic patient management. With the progress in molecular and translational research, there is a growing body of information on the molecular subtypes of breast carcinoma and their significance, and multigene signature assays are used to dictate prognosis and guide therapeutics in high resource settings. In addition, several cellular pathways involved in tumor growth and spread are dissected and targeted in clinical trials. Among these are the p53, RB, PI3K/Akt/mTOR and Ras/MAPK pathways, alterations associated with genetic instability and epigenetic alterations including histone methylation and acetylation, DNA methylation and microRNAs expression. The tumor immune microenvironment, including the tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) is attracting significant research interest. This review summarizes the mechanisms of function of the above factors in breast tumorigenesis with emphasis on their prognostic and predictive value and their use as therapeutic targets.

Prognostic significance of ESR1 gene amplification, mRNA/protein expression and functional profiles in high-risk early breast cancer: a translational study of the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group (HeCOG).

BACKGROUND: Discrepant data have been published on the incidence and prognostic significance of ESR1 gene amplification in early breast cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor blocks were collected from women with early breast cancer participating in two HeCOG adjuvant trials. Messenger RNA was studied by quantitative PCR, ER protein expression was centrally assessed using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and ESR1 gene copy number by dual fluorescent in situ hybridization probes. RESULTS: In a total of 1010 women with resected node-positive early breast adenocarcinoma, the tumoral ESR1/CEP6 gene ratio was suggestive of deletion in 159 (15.7%), gene gain in 551 (54.6%) and amplification in 42 cases (4.2%), with only 30 tumors (3%) harboring five or more ESR1 copies. Gene copy number ratio showed a significant, though weak correlation to mRNA and protein expression (Spearman's Rho <0.23, p = 0.01). ESR1 clusters were observed in 9.5% (57 gain, 38 amplification) of cases. In contrast to mRNA and protein expression, which were favorable prognosticators, gene copy number changes did not obtain prognostic significance. When ESR1/CEP6 gene ratio was combined with function (as defined by ER protein and mRNA expression) in a molecular classifier, the Gene Functional profile, it was functional status that impacted on prognosis. In univariate analysis, patients with functional tumors (positive ER protein expression and gene ratio normal or gain/amplification) fared better than those with non-functional tumors with ESR1 gain (HR for relapse or death 0.49-0.64, p = 0.003). Significant interactions were observed between gene gain/amplification and paclitaxel therapy (trend for DFS benefit from paclitaxel only in patients with ESR1 gain/amplification, p = 0.066) and Gene Functional profile with HER2 amplification (Gene Functional profile prognostic only in HER2-normal cases, p = 0.029). CONCLUSIONS: ESR1 gene deletion and amplification do not constitute per se prognostic markers, instead they can be classified to distinct prognostic groups according to their protein-mediated functional status.

Nrf2 is commonly activated in papillary thyroid carcinoma, and it controls antioxidant transcriptional responses and viability of cancer cells.

CONTEXT: The antioxidant transcription factor NFE2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), encoded by NFE2L2, has been implicated as mediator of thyroid cancer cell line resistance to proteasome inhibitors. However, the activity status of the Nrf2 pathway in human thyroid cancer remains unknown. OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were assessment of the activity status of the Nrf2 pathway in papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and investigation of its role(s) in antioxidant transcriptional responses and viability of cancer cells. DESIGN AND SETTING: We conducted retrospective immunohistochemical analyses of PTC specimens, adjacent normal tissue, and benign lesions; assays of viability and gene expression in the PTC cell lines K1 and TPC-1 after genetic/pharmacological manipulation of Nrf2; and DNA sequencing at an academic medical center. PATIENTS: The study included 42 PTC and 42 benign lesions (24 adenomas and 18 nodular hyperplasias). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We assessed the abundance of Nrf2, Nqo1, Keap1, and 4HNE; cell line viability and mRNA expression of Nrf2, Nqo1, and Trdx1; and the sequence of NFE2L2, KEAP1, and BRAF. RESULTS: Nrf2 and its target Nqo1 were undetectable in normal tissue; their levels were significantly higher in PTC than in benign lesions (P < .0001 and P = .024, respectively). The Nrf2 inhibitor Keap1 was variably abundant in PTC, and its levels did not correlate with Nrf2 (P = .37), arguing against decreased levels as the mechanism for Nrf2 activation. The oxidized lipid 4HNE was more abundant in PTC than normal tissue (P < .001), indicating oxidative stress. Nrf2 mediated transcriptional antioxidant responses in both the PTC cell lines K1 and TPC-1 and in the nontransformed cell line TAD2, but it conferred a viability advantage specifically in the PTC cell lines. CONCLUSIONS: The high activity of Nrf2 in PTC warrants further exploration of this pathway's potential diagnostic, prognostic, and/or therapeutic utility in PTC.

Intestinal mucosal proliferation, apoptosis and oxidative stress in patients with liver cirrhosis.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal mucosal barrier dysfunction in liver cirrhosis and its implicated mechanisms is of great clinical importance because it is associated with the development of serious complications from diverse organs through promotion of systemic endotoxemia. AIM: The present study was designed to investigate whether enterocytes' proliferation, apoptosis and intestinal oxidative stress are altered in the intestinal mucosa of patients with compensated and decompensated liver cirrhosis. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Twelve healthy controls (group A) and twenty four cirrhotic patients at a compensated (n = 12, group B) or decompensated condition (n = 12, group C) were subjected to duodenal biopsy. In intestinal specimens mucosal apoptotic and mitotic activity and their ratio were recorded by means of morphological assessment and mucosal lipid hydroperoxides were measured. Plasma endotoxin concentration, an index of gut barrier function, was also determined. RESULTS: Cirrhotic patients presented significantly higher serum endotoxin concentrations as compared to healthy controls (P < 0.001), whilst endotoxemia was higher in decompensated disease (P < 0.05 vs. compensated cirrhosis). Intestinal mucosal mitotic count was significantly lower in patients with compensated and decompensated cirrhosis compared to controls (P < 0.01, respectively), whilst a trend towards increased apoptosis was recorded. The mitotic/apoptotic ratio was significantly reduced in groups B (P < 0.05) and C (P < 0.01) as compared to controls. Intestinal lipid peroxidation was significantly increased in decompensated cirrhotics (P < 0.001 vs. groups A and B). CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates for the first time that human liver cirrhosis is associated with decreased intestinal mucosal proliferation and proliferation/apoptosis ratio even at early stages of cirrhosis and increased intestinal oxidative stress in advanced liver disease.

NSCLC and the alternative pathway of NF-κB: uncovering an unknown relation.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Although our knowledge on the pathobiology of the disease has increased in the last decades, the prognosis of lung cancer patients has hardly changed. Many signaling pathways are implicated in lung carcinogenesis, but the role of the alternative pathway of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) in lung cancer pathogenesis and progression has not been investigated. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of this pathway in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. NF-κB2 and RelB protein expression was retrospectively assessed by immunohistochemistry in tissue samples from 109 NSCLC patients. RelB and NF-κB2 protein levels differed between tumors and adjacent nonneoplastic lung parenchyma. Cytoplasmic immunoreactivity of NF-κB2 and RelB was correlated with tumor stage (p = 0.03 and p = 0.016, respectively). In addition, cytoplasmic NF-κB2 levels were related to tumor grade (p = 0.046). Expression of RelB in the cytoplasm was tumor histologic type-specific, with squamous cell carcinomas having the highest protein levels. Nuclear expression of RelB and NF-κB2 differed between tumor and nonneoplastic tissues, possibly indicating activation of the alternative pathway of NF-κB in cancer cells. Moreover, lymph node metastasis was related to nuclear NF-κB2 expression in tumor cells. The deregulation of the alternative NF-κB pathway in NSCLC could play a role in the development and progression of the disease.

Altered intestinal tight junctions' expression in patients with liver cirrhosis: a pathogenetic mechanism of intestinal hyperpermeability.

BACKGROUND: Increased intestinal permeability in cirrhosis exerts a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and other complications of cirrhosis through promotion of systemic endotoxemia. This study was designed to investigate whether the expression of tight junction (TJ) proteins, which regulate gut paracellular permeability, is altered in the intestinal mucosa of patients with liver cirrhosis and study its potential association with the stage of liver disease and the development of systemic endotoxemia. DESIGN: Twenty-four patients with cirrhosis at a decompensated (n = 12, group A) or compensated condition (n = 12, group B) and 12 healthy controls (group C) were subjected to duodenal biopsy. The expression of the TJ proteins occludin and claudin-1 in the intestinal epithelium was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Plasma endotoxin concentrations were also determined. RESULTS: Patients with cirrhosis presented significantly higher serum endotoxin concentrations as compared to healthy controls (P < 0·001), whilst endotoxemia was higher in decompensated disease (P < 0·05 vs. compensated cirrhosis). Patients with decompensated and compensated cirrhosis presented significantly reduced expression of occludin and claudin-1 as compared to controls (P < 0·01, respectively). These alterations were significantly more pronounced in decompensated patients as compared to compensated (P < 0·05). Regarding occludin, in patients with cirrhosis, a specific pattern of expression in the intestinal epithelium was observed, with a gradually increasing loss of expression from crypt to tip of the villi. Occludin and claudin-1 expression were inversely correlated with Child-Pugh score (P < 0·001), the grade of oesophageal varices (P < 0·01) and endotoxin concentrations (P < 0·001). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates for the first time that human liver cirrhosis induces significant alterations in enterocytes' TJs. These changes might represent an important cellular mechanism for intestinal barrier dysfunction and hyperpermeability in patients with liver cirrhosis.

Altered expression of NFY-C and RORA in colorectal adenocarcinomas.

NFY-C, a subunit of the transcription factor NFY, binds to the promoters of several eukaryotic genes, including cell cycle-related genes. RORA is a steroid hormone receptor implicated in a range of important cellular processes. We evaluated the expression of NFY-C and RORA in colorectal adenocarcinomas and normal colonic tissue. NFY-C expression was elevated in adenocarcinomas. Moreover, NFY-C mRNA levels correlated with time to disease progression, while NFY-C protein expression was significantly higher in metastatic disease. RORA expression was downregulated in CRC adenocarcinomas compared to normal controls and correlated with time to disease progression. The role of NFY-C and RORA in CRC merits further investigation.