True and false positive HIV point of care test results in a prospective multinational study of at-risk African women: implications for large-scale repeat HIV testing in HIV prevention programs.

BACKGROUND: Accurate HIV point of care testing is the cornerstone of prevention and treatment efforts globally, though false (both negative and positive) results are expected to occur. SETTING: We assessed the spectrum of true and false positive HIV results in a large prospective study of HIV incidence in African women using three contraceptive methods tested longitudinally in Eswatini, Kenya, South Africa, and Zambia. METHODS: HIV serologic testing was conducted quarterly using two parallel rapid HIV tests. When one or both tests were positive, additional confirmatory testing was conducted, including HIV enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). RESULTS: 7730 women contributed 48,234 visits: true positive results occurred at 412 visits (0.9%) and false positives at 96 visits (0.2%). Of 412 women with HIV seroconversion, 10 had discordant (i.e., one negative and one positive) rapid tests and 13 had undetectable HIV RNA levels. Of 62 women with false positive rapid HIV results, most had discordant rapid testing but six (9.7%) had dually-positive rapid results and four (6.5%) had false positive or indeterminate EIA results. The positive predictive value of dual positive rapid results was 98.3%. CONCLUSION: Although the majority of rapid test results were accurate, false positive results were expected and occurred in this population of initially HIV seronegative individuals tested repeatedly and prospectively. When HIV infection occurred, not all cases had textbook laboratory results. Our findings highlight the importance of confirmatory testing, particularly for individuals undergoing repeat testing and in settings where the point prevalence is expected to be low.

Doxycycline Prophylaxis to Prevent Sexually Transmitted Infections in Women.

BACKGROUND: Doxycycline postexposure prophylaxis (PEP) has been shown to prevent sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among cisgender men and transgender women, but data from trials involving cisgender women are lacking. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, open-label trial comparing doxycycline PEP (doxycycline hyclate, 200 mg taken within 72 hours after condomless sex) with standard care among Kenyan women 18 to 30 years of age who were receiving preexposure prophylaxis against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The primary end point was any incident infection with Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, or Treponema pallidum. Hair samples were collected quarterly for objective assessment of doxycycline use. RESULTS: A total of 449 participants underwent randomization; 224 were assigned to the doxycycline-PEP group and 225 to the standard-care group. Participants were followed quarterly over 12 months. A total of 109 incident STIs occurred (50 in the doxycycline-PEP group [25.1 per 100 person-years] and 59 in the standard-care group [29.0 per 100 person-years]), with no significant between-group difference in incidence (relative risk, 0.88; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.60 to 1.29; P = 0.51). Among the 109 incident STIs, chlamydia accounted for 85 (78.0%) (35 in the doxycycline-PEP group and 50 in the standard-care group; relative risk, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.47 to 1.13). No serious adverse events were considered by the trial investigators to be related to doxycycline, and there were no incident HIV infections. Among 50 randomly selected participants in the doxycycline-PEP group, doxycycline was detected in 58 of 200 hair samples (29.0%). All N. gonorrhoeae-positive isolates were resistant to doxycycline. CONCLUSIONS: Among cisgender women, the incidence of STIs was not significantly lower with doxycycline PEP than with standard care. According to hair-sample analysis, the use of doxycycline PEP among those assigned to receive it was low. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health; dPEP ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT04050540.).

Characteristics of Kenyan women using HIV PrEP enrolled in a randomized trial on doxycycline postexposure prophylaxis for sexually transmitted infection prevention.

INTRODUCTION: The global incidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) has been rapidly increasing over the past decade, with more than one million curable STIs being acquired daily. Young women in sub-Saharan Africa have a high prevalence and incidence of both curable STIs and HIV. The use of doxycycline as a prophylaxis to prevent STIs is promising; however, clinical trials, to date, have only been conducted among men who have sex with men (MSM) in high-income settings. We describe the characteristics of participants enrolled in the first trial to determine the efficacy of doxycycline post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) to reduce STI incidence among women taking daily, oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). METHODS: This is an open-label 1:1 randomized clinical trial on the efficacy of doxycycline PEP compared with standard of care (e.g., quarterly STI screening and treatment) to reduce incident bacterial STIs - Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, and Treponema pallidum - among Kenyan women aged ≥18 and ≤30 years. All were also taking HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). We describe the baseline characteristics, STI prevalence, and STI risk perception of participants. RESULTS: Between February 2020 and November 2021, 449 women were enrolled. The median age was 24 years (IQR 21-27), the majority were never married (66.1%), 370 women (82.4%) reported having a primary sex partner, and 33% had sex with new partners in the three months prior to enrolment. Two-thirds (67.5%, 268 women) did not use condoms, 36.7% reported transactional sex, and 43.2% suspected their male partners of having sex with other women. Slightly less than half (45.9%, 206 women) were recently concerned about being exposed to an STI. The prevalence of STIs was 17.9%, with C. trachomatis accounting for the majority of infections. Perceived risk of STIs was not associated with the detection of an STI. CONCLUSION: Young cisgender women using HIV PrEP in Kenya and enrolled in a trial of doxycycline postexposure prophylaxis had a high prevalence of curable STIs and represent a target population for an STI prevention intervention.

Clinical outcomes of intrauterine device insertions by newly trained providers: The ECHO trial experience.

Objectives: To assess the rates of failed insertion, expulsion, and perforation when intrauterine device (IUD) insertions were done by newly trained clinicians, and to examine factors that may affect these outcomes. Study design: We evaluated skill-based outcomes following IUD insertion at 12 African sites in a secondary analysis of the Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes (ECHO) randomized trial. Before trial initiation, we provided competency-based IUD training to clinicians and offered ongoing clinical support. We used Cox proportional hazards regression to examine factors associated with expulsion. Results: Among 2582 IUD acceptors who underwent first attempted IUD insertion, 141 experienced insertion failure (5.46%) and seven had uterine perforation (0.27%). Perforation was more common among breastfeeding women within three months postpartum (0.65%) compared with non-breastfeeding women (0.22%). We recorded 493 expulsions (15.5 per 100 person-years, 95% confidence interval [CI] 14.1─16.9): 383 partial and 110 complete. The risk of IUD expulsion was lower among women older than 24 years (aHR 0.63, 95% CI 0.50─0.78) and may be higher among nulliparous women. (aHR 1.65, 95% CI 0.97─2.82). Breastfeeding (aHR 0.94, 95% CI 0.72─1.22) had no significant effect on expulsion. IUD expulsion rate was highest during the first three months of the trial. Conclusions: IUD insertion failure and uterine perforation rates in our study were comparable to those reported in the literature. These results suggest that training, ongoing support, and opportunities to apply new skills were effective in ensuring good clinical outcomes for women receiving IUD insertion by newly trained providers. Implications: Data from this study support recommendations to program managers, policymakers, and clinicians that IUDs can be inserted safely in resource-constrained settings when providers receive appropriate training and support.

Copper intrauterine device increases vaginal concentrations of inflammatory anaerobes and depletes lactobacilli compared to hormonal options in a randomized trial.

Effective contraceptives are a global health imperative for reproductive-aged women. However, there remains a lack of rigorous data regarding the effects of contraceptive options on vaginal bacteria and inflammation. Among 218 women enrolled into a substudy of the ECHO Trial (NCT02550067), we evaluate the effect of injectable intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA-IM), levonorgestrel implant (LNG), and a copper intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) on the vaginal environment after one and six consecutive months of use, using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and multiplex cytokine assays. Primary endpoints include incident BV occurrence, bacterial diversity, and bacterial and cytokine concentrations. Secondary endpoints are bacterial and cytokine concentrations associated with later HIV seroconversion. Participants randomized to Cu-IUD exhibit elevated bacterial diversity, increased cytokine concentrations, and decreased relative abundance of lactobacilli after one and six months of use, relative to enrollment and other contraceptive options. Total bacterial loads of women using Cu-IUD increase 5.5 fold after six months, predominantly driven by increases in the concentrations of several inflammatory anaerobes. Furthermore, growth of L. crispatus (MV-1A-US) is inhibited by Cu2+ ions below biologically relevant concentrations, in vitro. Our work illustrates deleterious effects on the vaginal environment induced by Cu-IUD initiation, which may adversely impact sexual and reproductive health.

High HIV incidence among young women in South Africa: Data from a large prospective study.

INTRODUCTION: South Africa has the highest national burden of HIV globally. Understanding drivers of HIV acquisition in recently completed, prospective studies in which HIV was an endpoint may help inform the strategy and investments in national HIV prevention efforts and guide the design of future HIV prevention trials. We assessed HIV incidence and correlates of incidence among women enrolled in ECHO (Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes), a large, open-label randomized clinical trial that compared three highly effective. reversible methods of contraception and rates of HIV acquisition. METHODS: During December 2015 to October 2018, ECHO followed sexually active, HIV-seronegative women, aged 16-35 years, seeking contraceptive services and willing to be randomized to one of three contraceptive methods (intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, copper intrauterine device, or levonorgestrel implant) for 12-18 months at nine sites in South Africa. HIV incidence based on prospectively observed HIV seroconversion events. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to define baseline cofactors related to incident HIV infection. RESULTS: 5768 women were enrolled and contributed 7647 woman-years of follow-up. The median age was 23 years and 62.5% were ≤24 years. A total of 345 incident HIV infections occurred, an incidence of 4.51 per 100 woman-years (95%CI 4.05-5.01). Incidence was >3 per 100 woman-years at all sites. Age ≤24 years, baseline infection with sexually transmitted infections, BMI≤30, and having new or multiple partners in the three months prior to enrollment were associated with incident HIV. CONCLUSIONS: HIV incidence was high among South African women seeking contraceptive services. Integration of diagnostic management of sexually transmitted infections alongside delivery of HIV prevention options in health facilities providing contraception services are needed to mitigate ongoing risks of HIV acquisition for this vulnerable population. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02550067 was the main Clinical Trial from which this secondary, non-randomized / observational analysis was derived with data limited to just South African sites.

Doxycycline post-exposure prophylaxis for prevention of sexually transmitted infections among Kenyan women using HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis: study protocol for an open-label randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Women in Africa face disproportionate risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquisition, accounting for more than half of new infections in Africa and similarly face a disproportionate burden of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Very high STI prevalence is being observed globally, especially among people taking pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention. Doxycycline post-exposure prophylaxis (dPEP) has been proposed as an STI prevention strategy to reduce chlamydia, syphilis, and possibly gonorrhea, and trials are ongoing among cisgender men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women who are taking PrEP in high-income settings. We designed and describe here the first open-label trial to determine the effectiveness of dPEP to reduce STI incidence among cisgender women. METHODS: We are conducting an open-label 1:1 randomized trial of dPEP versus standard of care (STI screening and treatment and risk-reduction counseling without dPEP) among 446 Kenyan women aged ≥ 18 and ≤ 30 years old women taking PrEP. Women are followed for 12 months, with quarterly STI testing, treatment, and adherence counseling. The primary trial outcome will be the combined incidence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Treponema pallidum, compared between the randomized groups. We will also assess dPEP acceptability, tolerability, safety, impact on sexual behavior, adherence, and occurrence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis isolates. Finally, we will estimate cost per incident STI case and complications averted accounting for nonadherence and benefits relative AMR or side effects. DISCUSSION: The results of this trial may have immediate implications for the global epidemic of STIs and sexual health. If effective, dPEP could put STI prevention into women's hands. While dPEP may be able to prevent STIs, it carries important risks that could counter its benefits; global debate about the balance of these potential risks and benefits requires data to inform policy and implementation and our study aims to fill this gap. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04050540 .

The Effect of Contraception on Genital Cytokines in Women Randomized to Copper Intrauterine Device, Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate, or Levonorgestrel Implant.

BACKGROUND: The ECHO trial randomized women to intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA-IM), levonorgestrel implant (LNG-implant), or copper intrauterine device (Cu-IUD). In a substudy of the ECHO trial, we tested the hypothesis that contraceptives influence genital inflammation by comparing cervicovaginal cytokine changes following contraception initiation. In addition, we compared cytokine profiles in women who acquired HIV (cases) versus those remaining HIV negative (controls). METHODS: Women (n = 251) from South Africa and Kenya were included. Twenty-seven cervicovaginal cytokines were measured by Luminex at baseline, and 1 and 6 months after contraceptive iTanko et alnitiation. In addition, cytokines were measured preseroconversion in HIV cases (n = 25) and controls (n = 100). RESULTS: At 6 months after contraceptive initiation, women using Cu-IUD had increased concentrations of 25/27 cytokines compared to their respective baseline concentrations. In contrast, women initiating DMPA-IM and LNG-implant did not experience changes in cervicovaginal cytokines. Preseroconversion concentrations of IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α, previously associated with HIV risk, correlated with increased HIV risk in a logistic regression analysis, although not significantly after correcting for multiple comparisons. Adjusting for contraceptive arm did not alter these results. CONCLUSIONS: Although Cu-IUD use broadly increased cervicovaginal cytokine concentrations at 6 months postinsertion, these inflammatory changes were found not to be a significant driver of HIV risk. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT02550067.

A pragmatic approach to identifying implementation barriers and facilitators for a novel pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) delivery model at public facilities in urban Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Scalable HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) delivery models for resource-limited settings are critical for improving PrEP coverage and interrupting HIV transmission. This research uses technical assistance (TA) reports to evaluate implementation barriers and facilitators for a novel delivery model integrating PrEP and antiretroviral therapy (ART) delivery for HIV sero-different couples in public health facilities in Kampala, Uganda. METHODS: We used data from the Partners PrEP Program (PPP)-a stepped-wedge cluster randomized trial that is launching PrEP delivery through an integrated model of oral PrEP and antiretroviral therapy (ART) delivery for HIV sero-different couples at public health facilities in Kampala and Wakiso, Uganda (NCT03586128). Technical assistance teams, comprised of PPP program staff, conducted monthly TA visits to implementing facilities where they identified and addressed implementation challenges in collaboration with health facility staff. Findings were recorded in TA reports, a standardized form structured using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR). We used a conceptual content analysis approach to evaluate TA reports completed from January to December 2019 and identify implementation barriers and facilitators. RESULTS: Among 39 reports from the 8 implementing facilities (~ 5 per facility), we identified 11 CFIR constructs. Key implementation facilitators included sensitizing and educating facility staff about PrEP (knowledge and beliefs about the innovation); establishing formal and informal feedback and accountability mechanisms (reflecting and evaluating); and empowering facility staff to address implementation challenges (self-efficacy). Key implementation barriers were related to ineffective recruitment and referral of sero-different couples to and from nearby facilities (cosmopolitanism) as well as stockouts of laboratory resources and testing supplies (available resources). CONCLUSIONS: This analysis featured a robust implementation science framework to assess the relationship between early implementation determinants and outcomes of this innovative PrEP delivery model. Further, we have provided important descriptions of early implementation barriers and facilitators that will inform scale-up efforts for PrEP delivery within and beyond Uganda. Future work will refine the analysis of pragmatic program data, qualitatively investigate the identified key themes, and explore strategies for addressing implementation barriers.

Contraceptive method preference and reasons for contraceptive discontinuation among women randomized to intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, a copper intrauterine device or a levonorgestrel implant: Findings from Durban, South Africa.

OBJECTIVES: The use of intrauterine devices (IUDs) and contraceptive implants in South Africa is low with limited data on patterns of use and reasons for discontinuation. We describe contraceptive preferences and reasons for discontinuation among women enrolled in the Evidence for Contraceptive Options and HIV Outcomes (ECHO) Trial from one trial site. STUDY DESIGN: ECHO, conducted between 2015 and 2018, enrolled and randomized sexually active women, aged 16 to 35, and desiring contraception, to intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA-IM), a copper intrauterine device (copper-IUD) or a levonorgestrel (LNG) implant; follow-up was 12 to 18 months. We interviewed 829 women at the Durban, South Africa trial site at ECHO Trial exit to ascertain contraceptive preferences at randomization. Reasons for randomized contraceptive discontinuation were collected at ECHO Trial exit and 6 months later. Data were analyzed descriptively. RESULTS: At the final ECHO Trial visit, among women using their randomized contraceptive method (n = 757), 21% discontinued DMPA-IM, 20% discontinued LNG implant and 22% discontinued the copper-IUD. About a quarter from each group discontinued due to problems with bleeding. Among women continuing their randomized contraceptive at trial exit (n = 597), 25% discontinued DMPA-IM within 6 months of exiting the study, 8% discontinued LNG implant and 4% discontinued copper-IUD. A third of women reported wanting to be assigned DMPA-IM at randomization, 20% wanted the LNG implant and 18% the copper-IUD. CONCLUSIONS: Despite some women having preferences about which contraceptive they might be randomized to, discontinuation rates for all three methods at ECHO Trial exit and 6-month post-trial follow-up were low. IMPLICATIONS: Despite limited prior use of IUDs and implants among women enrolled in this study, and a desire by some women to not receive these methods at randomization, discontinuation rates remained low. The provision of quality contraceptive counselling and support may increase uptake and continued use of implants and IUDs.

Incidence of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Infection Among African Women Using Depot Medroxyprogesterone Acetate, a Copper Intrauterine Device, or a Levonorgestrel Implant for Contraception: A Nested Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND: Globally, women have higher herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) prevalence than men; data from observational studies suggest a possible association of HSV-2 acquisition with use of intramuscular depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA-IM). METHODS: Within a randomized trial of the effect of 3 contraceptive methods-DMPA-IM, a copper intrauterine device (IUD), and a levonorgestrel (LNG) implant-on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) acquisition, we assessed HSV-2 acquisition. HSV-2 and HIV seronegative women, aged 16-35 years, and seeking effective contraception were followed for 12-18 months at 12 sites in Eswatini, Kenya, South Africa, and Zambia from 2015 to 2018. HSV-2 serologic testing was done at enrollment and final study visits. Intention-to-treat analysis using Poisson regression with robust standard errors compared HSV-2 incidence by contraceptive method. RESULTS: At baseline, 4062 randomized women were HSV-2 seronegative, of whom 3898 (96.0%) had a conclusive HSV-2 result at their final study visit. Of these, 614 (15.8%) acquired HSV-2, at an incidence of 12.4/100 person-years (p-y): 10.9/100 p-y among women assigned DMPA-IM, 13.7/100 p-y the copper IUD, and 12.7/100 p-y the LNG implant. Incidence rate ratios (IRR) for HSV-2 acquisition were 0.80 (95% confidence interval [CI], .65-.97) for DMPA-IM compared with copper IUD, 0.86 (95% CI, .71-1.05) for DMPA-IM compared with LNG implant, and 1.08 (95% CI, .89-1.30) for copper IUD compared with LNG implant. HSV-2 acquisition risk was significantly increased among women who also acquired HIV during follow-up (IRR 3.55; 95% CI, 2.78-4.48). CONCLUSIONS: In a randomized trial, we found no association between HSV-2 acquisition and use of 3 contraceptive methods. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT02550067.

Integrating PrEP delivery in public health family planning clinics: a protocol for a pragmatic stepped wedge cluster randomized trial in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent girls and young women account for a disproportionate fraction of new HIV infections in Africa and are a priority population for HIV prevention, including provision of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Anchoring PrEP delivery to care settings like family planning (FP) services that women already access routinely may offer an efficient platform to reach HIV at-risk women. However, context-specific implementation science evaluation is needed. METHODS: The Family Planning Plus Project is a prospective, pragmatic implementation evaluation, designed as a stepped wedge, cluster randomized trial, at 12 clinics in Kenya. In collaboration with the Kenya Ministry of Health and Kisumu County Department of Health, we will introduce integration of HIV risk screening and PrEP delivery in public health FP clinics. The core multifaceted implementation strategies to integrate PrEP in FP clinics will include: (1) PrEP delivery by existing FP clinic staff, (2) health provider training, (3) PrEP technical assistance to coach and mentor providers, (4) joint supervision with Kisumu County health officials, and (5) stakeholder engagement. All core components of PrEP delivery-including screening for HIV risk, HIV testing, dispensing, adherence and risk reduction counseling, assessment of side effects, and provision of refills, or safety assessment-will be conducted by existing FP clinic staff as part of a standard care service package. The goal is to catalyze sustainable scale-up within existing infrastructures beyond the project. We will rigorously evaluate implementation outcomes and impact, using the RE-AIM (Reach, Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance) framework, and we will use Organizational Readiness for Implementing Change (ORIC) and the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Science Research (CFIR) to assess readiness to implement and contextual enablers and barriers of implementation, including how clinics innovate efficient delivery systems. DISCUSSION: Anchoring PrEP delivery to existing FP systems and staffing has tremendous potential to address barriers that women face in accessing HIV prevention and PrEP care, including lack of time, cost, and stigma of visiting a facility solely for HIV prevention. The FP Plus Project will initiate preparation for full-scale and sustainable model of integration of comprehensive HIV prevention services, including PrEP implementation, in public health FP clinics in low-income settings. Trial registration Registered with ClinicalTrials.gov on December 14, 2020: NCT04666792.

HIV risk and pre-exposure prophylaxis interest among women seeking post-abortion care in Kenya: a cross-sectional study.

INTRODUCTION: Post-abortion clinics located in regions with high HIV burden may ideal locations to integrate counselling and delivery of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), aligning with normative goals for integrated delivery of HIV and reproductive health care. The objective of this study was to gauge the degree to which Kenyan women seeking care for a pregnancy loss, including induced abortion, are at risk for HIV and whether women would welcome an introduction to PrEP prior to discharge from post-abortion care. METHODS: We conducted a mixed-methods study from August 2019 to February 2020 with women ages 15 to 30 recruited sequentially as they were accessing post-abortion care at public and private facilities in Thika and Kisumu, Kenya. Data collection was through a cross-sectional survey and laboratory testing for common sexually transmitted infections (N = 200), and in-depth interviews (N = 30). Descriptive statistics summarize PrEP knowledge and referrals and a multivariable log-link binomial model estimated correlates of receiving a referral for PrEP. Qualitative data were analysed using inductive and deductive approaches. RESULTS: Among 200 HIV-negative women (median age 21.0, interquartile range 19.0 to 22.0), the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis was 18.2% and Neisseria gonorrhoeae was 2.0%. Half of the women scored ≥5 on a validated tool that would correspond to an expected HIV incidence of 9.5% per year. Approximately half (55.8%) of women were familiar with PrEP prior to the study and 33.3% received a referral from study staff to a clinic offering PrEP. In qualitative interviews, women expressed interest in accessing PrEP from the gynaecology ward that provided post-abortion care but they preferred alternative locations for PrEP refills. CONCLUSIONS: Kenyan women accessing post-abortion care have substantial HIV risk and were favourable about the idea of receiving support to initiate PrEP as part of care offered during post-abortion care. These settings can be integrated into national PrEP programmes as locations providing PrEP referrals and initiation.

Toll-like receptor gene variants and bacterial vaginosis among HIV-1 infected and uninfected African women.

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal syndrome associated with altered microflora that increases the risk of preterm delivery and acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. The cause of BV is unknown although toll-like receptors (TLRs), that are central to innate immune responses, may be important. We evaluated associations between TLR SNPs and BV among HIV-1 infected and uninfected African women. Logistic regression was used to assess associations between SNPs (N=99) in TLRs 2-4, 7-9 and BV (as classified by Nugent's criteria). Among HIV-1 uninfected women, TLR7 rs5743737 and TLR7 rs1634323 were associated with a decreased risk of BV, whereas TLR7 rs179012 was associated with an increased risk. TLR2 SNP rs3804099 was associated with a decreased risk of BV among HIV-1 infected women. Our findings indicate that there may be differences in TLR association with BV among HIV-1 infected and HIV-1 uninfected women.