Morphology combined with HER2 D-DISH ploidy analysis to diagnose partial hydatidiform mole: an evaluation audit using molecular genotyping.

AIMS: A hydatidiform mole (HM) is classified as complete (CHM) or partial (PHM) based on its morphology and genomic composition. Ancillary techniques are often required to confirm a morphologically suspected PHM diagnosis. This study sought to evaluate the clinical accuracy of PHM diagnosis using morphological assessment supported by HER2 dual-colour dual-hapten in situ hybridisation (D-DISH) ploidy determination. METHODS: Over a 2-year period, our unit examined 1265 products of conception (POCs) from which 103 atypical POCs were diagnosed as PHM or non-molar conceptuses with the assistance of HER2 D-DISH ploidy analysis. We retrospectively audited a sample of 40 of these atypical POCs using short tandem repeat genotyping. DNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue was genotyped using 24 polymorphic loci. Parental alleles in placental villi were identified by comparison to those in maternal decidua. To identify triploid PHM cases, we sought three alleles of equal peak height or two alleles with one allele peak twice the height of the other at each locus. RESULTS: Thirty-six of the 40 cases (19 PHM and 17 non-molar) were successfully genotyped and demonstrated complete concordance with the original diagnosis. All PHMs were diandric triploid of dispermic origin. In two non-molar diploid cases, we identified suspected trisomies (13 and 18), which potentially explains the pregnancy loss in these cases. CONCLUSIONS: This study validates the use of HER2 D-DISH ploidy analysis to support the diagnosis of a morphologically suspected PHM in our practice.

Management of patients with rare adult solid cancers: objectives and evaluation of European reference networks (ERN) EURACAN.

About 500,000 patients with rare adult solid cancers (RASC) are diagnosed yearly in Europe. Delays and unequal quality of management impact negatively their survival. Since 2017, European reference networks (ERN) aim to improve the quality of care of patients with rare disease. The steering committee of EURACAN, including physicians, researchers and patients review here the previous actions, present objectives of the ERN EURACAN dedicated to RASC. EURACAN promoted management in reference centres, and equal implementation of excellence and innovation in Europe and developed 22 clinical practice guidelines (CPGs). Additionally, fourteen information brochures translated in 24 EU languages were developed in collaboration with patient advocacy groups (ePAGs) and seventeen training session were organized. Nevertheless, connections to national networks in the 26 participating countries (106 centres), simplification of cross-border healthcare, international multidisciplinary tumour boards, registries and monitoring of the quality of care are still required. In this Health Policy, evaluation criteria of the performances of the network and of health care providers are proposed.

Effectiveness of adjuvant systemic therapy following complete cytoreductive surgery in patients with recurrent granulosa cell tumours of the ovary.

Aim of the present analysis is to compare the impact of antihormonal therapy versus cytotoxic chemotherapy versus a watch a wait approach on disease-free survival (DFS) in the adjuvant setting of patients who underwent complete cytoreductive surgery(CRS) for recurrent adult type granulosa cell tumours of the ovary (GCT). Moreover, we wished to identify prognostic risk factors for recurrence. We included recurrent GCT-patients who underwent CRS resulting in total macroscopic tumour clearance, treated in two gynaecological cancer centres over a 20-year period (2000-2020). CRS was performed for 51 recurrences in 26 GCT-patients. Adjuvant systemic treatments were as follows: chemotherapy in 21 cases, hormonotherapy in 10 cases, no systemic treatment in 20 cases. There were no statistically significant differences in DFS between chemotherapy, hormonotherapy and no systemic treatment: median DFS was 57, 36 and 57 months, respectively (p = 0.616). Extra-pelvic and/or multifocal tumour dissemination were found to be independent predictive factors for subsequent recurrences. In the cases with both lower and upper abdominal involvement (n = 18), patients who received chemotherapy (n = 9) had longer DFS than those who had hormonotherapy (n = 2) or no adjuvant therapy (n = 7) at all: median DFS was 36, 13 and 15 months, respectively (p = 0.9). Our findings do not encourage the administration of adjuvant therapy following complete CRS for GCT-relapse. Selected high-risk patients with disseminated disease may derive clinical benefit from additional chemotherapy, larger-scale multicentre studies are warranted to define treatment algorithms for this rare disease.

PREDICT-GTN 2: Two-factor streamlined models match FIGO performance in gestational trophoblastic neoplasia.

OBJECTIVE: The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) scoring system uses the sum of eight risk-factors to predict single-agent chemotherapy resistance in Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia (GTN). To improve ease of use, this study aimed to generate: (i) streamlined models that match FIGO performance and; (ii) visual-decision aids (nomograms) for guiding management. METHODS: Using training (n = 4191) and validation datasets (n = 144) of GTN patients from two UK specialist centres, logistic regression analysis generated two-factor models for cross-validation and exploration. Performance was assessed using true and false positive rate, positive and negative predictive values, Bland-Altman calibration plots, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, decision-curve analysis (DCA) and contingency tables. Nomograms were developed from estimated model parameters and performance cross-checked upon the training and validation dataset. RESULTS: Three streamlined, two-factor models were selected for analysis: (i) M1, pre-treatment hCG + history of failed chemotherapy; (ii) M2, pre-treatment hCG + site of metastases and; (iii) M3, pre-treatment hCG + number of metastases. Using both training and validation datasets, these models showed no evidence of significant discordance from FIGO (McNemar's test p > 0.78) or across a range of performance parameters. This behaviour was maintained when applying algorithms simulating the logic of the nomograms. CONCLUSIONS: Our streamlined models could be used to assess GTN patients and replace FIGO, statistically matching performance. Given the importance of imaging parameters in guiding treatment, M2 and M3 are favoured for ongoing validation. In resource-poor countries, where access to specialist centres is problematic, M1 could be pragmatically implemented. Further prospective validation on a larger cohort is recommended.

What is the optimal duration, dose and frequency for anti-PD1 therapy of non-small cell lung cancer?

Over the past decade, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have transformed the management of multiple malignancies including lung cancer. However, the optimal use of these agents in terms of duration, dose and administration frequency remains unknown. Focusing on anti-PD1 agents nivolumab and pembrolizumab in the context of non-small cell lung cancer, we argue that several lines of evidence suggest current administration regimens of these drugs may result in overtreatment with potentially important implications for cost, quality of life and toxicity. This review summarizes evidence for the scope to optimize anti-PD1 regimens, the limitations of existing data and potential approaches to solve these problems including with a novel multi-arm clinical trial design implemented in the recently opened REFINE-Lung study.

Crosstalk with lung fibroblasts shapes the growth and therapeutic response of mesothelioma cells.

Mesothelioma is an aggressive cancer of the mesothelial layer associated with an extensive fibrotic response. The latter is in large part mediated by cancer-associated fibroblasts which mediate tumour progression and poor prognosis. However, understanding of the crosstalk between cancer cells and fibroblasts in this disease is mostly lacking. Here, using co-cultures of patient-derived mesothelioma cell lines and lung fibroblasts, we demonstrate that fibroblast activation is a self-propagated process producing a fibrotic extracellular matrix (ECM) and triggering drug resistance in mesothelioma cells. Following characterisation of mesothelioma cells/fibroblasts signalling crosstalk, we identify several FDA-approved targeted therapies as far more potent than standard-of-care Cisplatin/Pemetrexed in ECM-embedded co-culture spheroid models. In particular, the SRC family kinase inhibitor, Saracatinib, extends overall survival well beyond standard-of-care in a mesothelioma genetically-engineered mouse model. In short, we lay the foundation for the rational design of novel therapeutic strategies targeting mesothelioma/fibroblast communication for the treatment of mesothelioma patients.

From national to international collaboration in GTD: hurdles and possibilities.

Today most women with gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) can expect to be cured particularly if they live in middle to high income countries with access to GTD centres. In contrast, countries lacking organized GTD care achieve lower survival rates. This review considers some of the successes and areas for improvement in GTD care that have been achieved through national and international collaborations.

Efficacy analysis of single-agent carboplatin AUC4 2-weekly as second-line therapy for methotrexate-resistant (MTX-R) low risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN).

BACKGROUND: Approximately one-third of patients with low-risk Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia (WHO 0-6) develop methotrexate-resistance (MTX-R). In the UK, subsequent treatment with either actinomycin-D (ActD) or multi-agent combination chemotherapy has depended on whether the hCG was above or below an hCG threshold. To reduce exposure to combination chemotherapy (CC), over the years the UK service has raised this threshold as well as using single-agent carboplatin AUC6 3-weekly at MTX-R instead of CC. Updated results for carboplatin demonstrate an 86% complete hCG response (hCG CR) but associated with haematological dose-limiting toxicity. METHODS: In 2017, single-agent carboplatin became the national standard second-line treatment following MTX-R at hCG of >3000 IU/L. Carboplatin was changed to two-weekly AUC4 scheduling and continued until normal hCG plus 3 consolidation cycles. For patients failing to respond, CC (Etoposide-Actinomycin-D or EMA-CO) was introduced. RESULTS: 22 evaluable patients with a median hCG at MTX-R of 10,147 IU/L (IQR 5527-19,639) received carboplatin AUC4 2-weekly (median no. of cycles = 6, IQR 2-8). Of these, 36% achieved a hCG CR. All 14 non-CR patients were cured with subsequent CC; 11 and 2 patients with 3rd line and 4th line CC respectively and 1 patient following 5th line CC and hysterectomy. Overall survival remains 100%. CONCLUSION: Carboplatin is not sufficiently active in the second-line treatment of low-risk MTX-resistant GTN. New strategies are required to increase hCG CR and spare more toxic CC regimens.

REFINE-Lung implements a novel multi-arm randomised trial design to address possible immunotherapy overtreatment.

Increasing evidence suggests that some immunotherapy dosing regimens for patients with advanced cancer could result in overtreatment. Given the high costs of these agents, and important implications for quality of life and toxicity, new approaches are needed to identify and reduce unnecessary treatment. Conventional two-arm non-inferiority designs are inefficient in this context because they require large numbers of patients to explore a single alternative to the standard of care. Here, we discuss the potential problem of overtreatment with anti-PD-1 directed agents in general and introduce REFINE-Lung (NCT05085028), a UK multicentre phase 3 study of reduced frequency pembrolizumab in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. REFINE-Lung uses a novel multi-arm multi-stage response over continuous interventions (MAMS-ROCI) design to determine the optimal dose frequency of pembrolizumab. Along with a similarly designed basket study of patients with renal cancer and melanoma, REFINE-Lung and the MAMS-ROCI design could contribute to practice-changing advances in patient care and form a template for future immunotherapy optimisation studies across cancer types and indications. This new trial design is applicable to many new or existing agents for which optimisation of dose, frequency, or duration of therapy is desirable.

PREDICT-GTN 1: Can we improve the FIGO scoring system in gestational trophoblastic neoplasia?

Gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN) patients are treated according to the eight-variable International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) scoring system, that aims to predict first-line single-agent chemotherapy resistance. FIGO is imperfect with one-third of low-risk patients developing disease resistance to first-line single-agent chemotherapy. We aimed to generate simplified models that improve upon FIGO. Logistic regression (LR) and multilayer perceptron (MLP) modelling (n = 4191) generated six models (M1-6). M1, all eight FIGO variables (scored data); M2, all eight FIGO variables (scored and raw data); M3, nonimaging variables (scored data); M4, nonimaging variables (scored and raw data); M5, imaging variables (scored data); and M6, pretreatment hCG (raw data) + imaging variables (scored data). Performance was compared to FIGO using true and false positive rates, positive and negative predictive values, diagnostic odds ratio, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, Bland-Altman calibration plots, decision curve analysis and contingency tables. M1-6 were calibrated and outperformed FIGO on true positive rate and positive predictive value. Using LR and MLP, M1, M2 and M4 generated small improvements to the ROC curve and decision curve analysis. M3, M5 and M6 matched FIGO or performed less well. Compared to FIGO, most (excluding LR M4 and MLP M5) had significant discordance in patient classification (McNemar's test P < .05); 55-112 undertreated, 46-206 overtreated. Statistical modelling yielded only small gains over FIGO performance, arising through recategorisation of treatment-resistant patients, with a significant proportion of under/overtreatment as the available data have been used a priori to allocate primary chemotherapy. Streamlining FIGO should now be the focus.

Differential Expression of RSK4 Transcript Isoforms in Cancer and Its Clinical Relevance.

While we previously revealed RSK4 as a therapeutic target in lung and bladder cancers, the wider role of this kinase in other cancers remains controversial. Indeed, other reports instead proposed RSK4 as a tumour suppressor in colorectal and gastric cancers and are contradictory in breast malignancies. One explanation for these discrepancies may be the expression of different RSK4 isoforms across cancers. Four RNAs are produced from the RSK4 gene, with two being protein-coding. Here, we analysed the expression of the latter across 30 normal and 33 cancer tissue types from the combined GTEx/TCGA dataset and correlated it with clinical features. This revealed the expression of RSK4 isoforms 1 and 2 to be independent prognostic factors for patient survival, pathological stage, cancer metastasis, recurrence, and immune infiltration in brain, stomach, cervical, and kidney cancers. However, we found that upregulation of either isoform can equally be associated with good or bad prognosis depending on the cancer type, and changes in the expression ratio of isoforms fail to predict clinical outcome. Hence, differential isoform expression alone cannot explain the contradictory roles of RSK4 in cancers, and further research is needed to highlight the underlying mechanisms for the context-dependent function of this kinase.

Dataset for the Reporting of Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia: Recommendations From the International Collaboration on Cancer Reporting (ICCR).

Comprehensive pathology reporting of cancers is important for patient management, tumor staging, and prognostication. Standardized cancer datasets are essential in guiding pathology reporting in a consistent and concise manner and this facilitates effective global cancer information exchange and comparison. The International Collaboration on Cancer Reporting (ICCR) is an alliance of several national and international pathology societies in many countries as well as bodies which are involved in tumor classification and staging. One function of the ICCR is to develop evidence-based, standardized reporting datasets for each cancer site. Herein, we report the development of an evidence-based cancer dataset by an ICCR panel of international experts for the reporting of primary uterine gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. We present the core elements that should be included and noncore elements that are recommended for inclusion in pathology reports. Lists of the response values are provided for each element, along with explanatory commentaries. The dataset also discusses controversial issues in the reporting of gestational trophoblastic neoplasia. Such evidence-based and structured pathology datasets developed through an international effort will facilitate consistent and accurate exchange and comparison of epidemiological and pathologic parameters among different populations and countries. This will ultimately improve gestational trophoblastic neoplasia patient care and facilitate future research.

Sensitive screening of single nucleotide polymorphisms in cell free DNA for diagnosis of gestational tumours.

Tumours expressing human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), the majority of which are difficult to biopsy due to their vascularity, have disparate prognoses depending on their origin. As optimal management relies on accurate diagnosis, we aimed to develop a sensitive cell free DNA (cfDNA) assay to non-invasively distinguish between cases of gestational and non-gestational origin. Deep error-corrected Illumina sequencing of 195 common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in cfDNA and matched genomic DNA from 36 patients with hCG-secreting tumours (serum hCG 5 to 3,042,881 IU/L) and 7 controls with normal hCG levels (≤4 IU/L) was performed. cfDNA from confirmed gestational tumours with hCG levels ranging from 1497 to 700,855 IU/L had multiple (n ≥ 12) 'non-host' alleles (i.e. alleles of paternal origin). In such cases the non-host fraction of cfDNA ranged from 0.3 to 40.4% and correlated with serum hCG levels. At lower hCG levels the ability to detect non-host cfDNA was variable, with the detection limit dependent on the type of causative pregnancy. Patients with non-gestational tumours were identifiable by the absence of non-host cfDNA, with copy number alterations detectable in the majority of cases. Following validation in a larger cohort, our sensitive assay will enable clinicians to better inform patients, for whom biopsy is inappropriate, of their prognosis and provide optimum management.

ATR and CDK4/6 inhibition target the growth of methotrexate-resistant choriocarcinoma.

Low-risk gestational trophoblastic neoplasia including choriocarcinoma is often effectively treated with Methotrexate (MTX) as a first line therapy. However, MTX resistance (MTX-R) occurs in at least ≈33% of cases. This can sometimes be salvaged with actinomycin-D but often requires more toxic combination chemotherapy. Moreover, additional therapy may be needed and, for high-risk patients, 5% still die from the multidrug-resistant disease. Consequently, new treatments that are less toxic and could reverse MTX-R are needed. Here, we compared the proteome/phosphoproteome of MTX-resistant and sensitive choriocarcinoma cells using quantitative mass-spectrometry to identify therapeutically actionable molecular changes associated with MTX-R. Bioinformatics analysis of the proteomic data identified cell cycle and DNA damage repair as major pathways associated with MTX-R. MTX-R choriocarcinoma cells undergo cell cycle delay in G1 phase that enables them to repair DNA damage more efficiently through non-homologous end joining in an ATR-dependent manner. Increased expression of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) and loss of p16Ink4a in resistant cells suggested that CDK4 inhibition may be a strategy to treat MTX-R choriocarcinoma. Indeed, inhibition of CDK4/6 using genetic silencing or the clinically relevant inhibitor, Palbociclib, induced growth inhibition both in vitro and in an orthotopic in vivo mouse model. Finally, targeting the ATR pathway, genetically or pharmacologically, re-sensitised resistant cells to MTX in vitro and potently prevented the growth of MTX-R tumours in vivo. In short, we identified two novel therapeutic strategies to tackle MTX-R choriocarcinoma that could rapidly be translated into the clinic.

Diagnosis and management of gestational trophoblastic disease: 2021 update.

Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) arises from abnormal placenta and is composed of a spectrum of premalignant to malignant disorders. Changes in epidemiology of GTD have been noted in various countries. In addition to histology, molecular genetic studies can help in the diagnostic pathway. Earlier detection of molar pregnancy by ultrasound has resulted in changes in clinical presentation and decreased morbidity from uterine evacuation. Follow-up with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is essential for early diagnosis of gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN). The duration of hCG monitoring varies depending on histological type and regression rate. Low-risk GTN (FIGO Stages I-III: score <7) is treated with single-agent chemotherapy but may require additional agents; although scores 5-6 are associated with more drug resistance, overall survival approaches 100%. High-risk GTN (FIGO Stages II-III: score ≥7 and Stage IV) is treated with multiagent chemotherapy, with or without adjuvant surgery for excision of resistant foci of disease or radiotherapy for brain metastases, achieving a survival rate of approximately 90%. Gentle induction chemotherapy helps reduce early deaths in patients with extensive tumor burden, but late mortality still occurs from recurrent treatment-resistant tumors.

Repurposed floxacins targeting RSK4 prevent chemoresistance and metastasis in lung and bladder cancer.

Lung and bladder cancers are mostly incurable because of the early development of drug resistance and metastatic dissemination. Hence, improved therapies that tackle these two processes are urgently needed to improve clinical outcome. We have identified RSK4 as a promoter of drug resistance and metastasis in lung and bladder cancer cells. Silencing this kinase, through either RNA interference or CRISPR, sensitized tumor cells to chemotherapy and hindered metastasis in vitro and in vivo in a tail vein injection model. Drug screening revealed several floxacin antibiotics as potent RSK4 activation inhibitors, and trovafloxacin reproduced all effects of RSK4 silencing in vitro and in/ex vivo using lung cancer xenograft and genetically engineered mouse models and bladder tumor explants. Through x-ray structure determination and Markov transient and Deuterium exchange analyses, we identified the allosteric binding site and revealed how this compound blocks RSK4 kinase activation through binding to an allosteric site and mimicking a kinase autoinhibitory mechanism involving the RSK4's hydrophobic motif. Last, we show that patients undergoing chemotherapy and adhering to prophylactic levofloxacin in the large placebo-controlled randomized phase 3 SIGNIFICANT trial had significantly increased (P = 0.048) long-term overall survival times. Hence, we suggest that RSK4 inhibition may represent an effective therapeutic strategy for treating lung and bladder cancer.

Progress to international harmonisation of care and future developments.

Considerable differences exist in the management of gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) both nationally and internationally despite numerous efforts to harmonise patient care. This partly reflects differences in healthcare systems and availability of resources. However, even in first world equivalent economies with similar healthcare systems differences remain, which appear to impact survival. Recently, new international guidelines have been established in Europe through a series of consensus meetings. Improvement of outcomes will depend on the establishment of dedicated centres with appropriate patient pathways according to these guidelines. This review will highlight some of the differences and efforts to unify the management of GTD across the globe and discuss areas for future development.