The Role of Glutathione and Sulfhydryl Groups in Cadmium Uptake by Cultures of the Rainbow Trout RTG-2 Cell Line.

The aim of this study is to investigate the role of cellular sulfhydryl and glutathione (GSH) status in cellular cadmium (Cd) accumulation using cultures of the rainbow trout cell line RTG-2. In a first set of experiments, the time course of Cd accumulation in RTG-2 cells exposed to a non-cytotoxic CdCl2 concentration (25 µM) was determined, as were the associated changes in the cellular sulfhydryl status. The cellular levels of total GSH, oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and cysteine were determined with fluorometric high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the intracellular Cd concentrations were determined with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The Cd uptake during the first 24 h of exposure was linear before it approached a plateau at 48 h. The metal accumulation did not cause an alteration in cellular GSH, GSSG, or cysteine levels. In a second set of experiments, we examined whether the cellular sulfhydryl status modulates Cd accumulation. To this end, the following approaches were used: (a) untreated RTG-2 cells as controls, and (b) RTG-2 cells that were either depleted of GSH through pre-exposure to 1 mM L-buthionine-SR-sulfoximine (BSO), an inhibitor of glutathione synthesis, or the cellular sulfhydryl groups were blocked through treatment with 2.5 µM N-ethylmaleimide (NEM). Compared to the control cells, the cells depleted of intracellular GSH showed a 25% reduction in Cd accumulation. Likewise, the Cd accumulation was reduced by 25% in the RTG-2 cells with blocked sulfhydryl groups. However, the 25% decrease in cellular Cd accumulation in the sulfhydryl-manipulated cells was statistically not significantly different from the Cd accumulation in the control cells. The findings of this study suggest that the intracellular sulfhydryl and GSH status, in contrast to their importance for Cd toxicodynamics, is of limited importance for the toxicokinetics of Cd in fish cells.

Hazards of current concentration-setting practices in environmental toxicology studies.

The setting of concentrations for testing substances in ecotoxicological studies is often based on fractions of the concentrations that cause 50% mortality (LC50 or LD50) rather than environmentally relevant levels. This practice can result in exposures to animals at test concentrations that are magnitudes of order greater than those experienced in the environment. Often, such unrealistically high concentrations may cause non-specific biochemical or morphologic changes that primarily reflect the near-lethal health condition of the animal subjects, as opposed to effects characteristic of the particular test compound. Meanwhile, it is recognized that for many chemicals, the toxicologic mode of action (MOA) responsible for lethality may differ entirely from the MOAs that cause various sublethal effects. One argument for employing excessively high exposure concentrations in sublethal studies is to ensure the generation of positive toxicological effects, which can then be used to establish safety thresholds; however, it is possible that the pressure to produce exposure-related effects may also contribute to false positive outcomes. The purpose of this paper is to explore issues involving some current usages of acute LC50 data in ecotoxicology testing, and to propose an alternative strategy for performing this type of research moving forward. Toward those ends, a brief literature survey was conducted to gain an appreciation of methods that are currently being used to set test concentrations for sublethal definitive studies.

Chemically-induced trout model of acute intestinal inflammation using TNBS.

Chemically-induced models of intestinal inflammation are a useful tool for the study of immune responses and inflammation. Although well established in mammals, application of these models is currently limited in teleosts. Based on a variety of factors, including genetic diversity, known toxicological sensitivity, and economic importance, we propose salmonids as a model family of fishes for studying intestinal inflammation. We present a rainbow trout model of chemically-induced intestinal inflammation using 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS), assessed through histological analysis of primary and secondary intestinal folding, enterocyte morphology, goblet cell size and frequency, tissue layer thickness, and immune cell infiltration. Twenty-four hours after treatment with one of three concentrations of TNBS, trout developed classic signs of intestinal inflammation, including notably increased thickness of primary and secondary folds, and increased immune cell infiltration as compared to controls. This study provides a simple, reproducible model of rapid TNBS-induction of moderate intestinal inflammation.

In vitro biotransformation assays using fish liver cells: Comparing rainbow trout and carp hepatocytes.

Biotransformation assays using primary hepatocytes from rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, were validated as a reliable in vitro tool to predict in vivo bioconcentration factors (BCF) of chemicals in fish. Given the pronounced interspecies differences of chemical biotransformation, the present study aimed to compare biotransformation rate values and BCF predictions obtained with hepatocytes from the cold-water species, rainbow trout, to data obtained with hepatocytes of the warm-water species, common carp (Cyprinus carpio). In a first step, we adapted the protocol for the trout hepatocyte assay, including the cryopreservation method, to carp hepatocytes. The successful adaptation serves as proof of principle that the in vitro hepatocyte biotransformation assays can be technically transferred across fish species. In a second step, we compared the in vitro intrinsic clearance rates (CLin vitro, int) of two model xenobiotics, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and methoxychlor (MXC), in trout and carp hepatocytes. The in vitro data were used to predict in vivo biotransformation rate constants (kB) and BCFs, which were then compared to measured in vivo kB and BCF values. The CLin vitro, int values of BaP and MXC did not differ significantly between trout and carp hepatocytes, but the predicted BCF values were significantly higher in trout than in carp. In contrast, the measured in vivo BCF values did not differ significantly between the two species. A possible explanation of this discrepancy is that the existing in vitro-in vivo prediction models are parameterized only for trout but not for carp. Therefore, future research needs to develop species-specific extrapolation models.

Reliable Field Assessment of Proliferative Kidney Disease in Wild Brown Trout, Salmo trutta, Populations: When Is the Optimal Sampling Period?

Proliferative kidney disease (PKD), caused by the myxozoan parasite Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae, is suspected to contribute to the decline of wild brown trout Salmo trutta populations. Different factors need to be taken into consideration for PKD outbreaks. Among them, water temperature appears as a main driver of the disease. To understand the epidemiology and impact of the disease on wild fish populations, reliable sampling approaches to detect the presence of T. bryosalmonae-infected fish are needed. This study aimed to characterize the seasonal variation of the prevalence of T. bryosalmonae-infected fish in brown trout populations in two small streams with differing temperature regimes between upstream and downstream sites. As water temperature is known to influence PKD manifestation in brown trout, we hypothesized that the number of T. bryosalmonae-positive fish, as well as their seasonal distribution, will vary between upper and downstream parts of the two streams. Since, in field studies, results can strongly vary across years, we extended the study over a 3-year-period. The number of infected fish and the intensity of infection were assessed by histology. The results confirmed the hypothesis of pronounced temporal- and site-related differences in the percentage of PKD-positive fish and the intensity of the infection. Comparison of water temperatures (total degree days as well as the number of days with a daily mean temperature ≥15 °C) with PKD data indicated that temperature was the driving factor for the temporal development and the intensity of the infection. A mean of 1500 degree days or 30 days with a daily mean temperature ≥15 °C was required before the infection could be detected histologically. From our findings, recommendations are derived for a water temperature-driven sampling strategy campaigns that enables the detection of PKD infection and prevalence in wild brown trout populations.

HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF CAPTIVE AND FREE-LIVING EUROPEAN POND TURTLES (EMYS ORBICULARIS) IN SWITZERLAND.

The highly endangered European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) was reintroduced in Switzerland in 2010. Up until 2019, no routine medical examinations have been carried out prior to its release or during recapture events. The aim of this study was to assess the health status of captive and free-living Emys orbicularis populations in Switzerland, taking into account the most important and frequently occurring health threats to freshwater turtles. A total of 141 European pond turtles, including captive (n = 89) and free-living (n = 52) individuals, underwent clinical examination (n = 136), choanal and cloacal swab collection for microbiology investigation (n = 140), blood sampling (n = 121), fecal examination for parasitology (n = 92), radiography (n = 84), and ultrasound (n = 46). Microbiology investigation included conventional PCR for herpesvirus, ranavirus, and Mycoplasma spp. Blood was used for the establishment of reference values for hematocrit, leukocyte count, and differential blood count as well as for biochemistry parameters tested with the VetScan VS2. An emydid Mycoplasma was detected in 40% (n = 56/140; 95%CI: 31.82-48.61%) of the turtles, including one individual with upper respiratory signs. Four animals positive for Mycoplasma arrived dead or were euthanized during the study period. Their necropsies revealed no evidence of respiratory disease. No ranavirus or herpesvirus was detected in any of the tested turtles. Two presumptively fatal infections with spirorchiid trematodes were reported during the study period. Endoparasites were detected in only 7.94% of the samples examined. This study provides comprehensive data on the current health status of the largest sample size of captive and free-living populations of Emys orbicularis ever assessed to date and serves as a baseline for future research investigations and management recommendations in this species.

Assessing Fish Immunotoxicity by Means of In Vitro Assays: Are We There Yet?

There is growing awareness that a range of environmental chemicals target the immune system of fish and may compromise the resistance towards infectious pathogens. Existing concepts to assess chemical hazards to fish, however, do not consider immunotoxicity. Over recent years, the application of in vitro assays for ecotoxicological hazard assessment has gained momentum, what leads to the question whether in vitro assays using piscine immune cells might be suitable to evaluate immunotoxic potentials of environmental chemicals to fish. In vitro systems using primary immune cells or immune cells lines have been established from a wide array of fish species and basically from all immune tissues, and in principal these assays should be able to detect chemical impacts on diverse immune functions. In fact, in vitro assays were found to be a valuable tool in investigating the mechanisms and modes of action through which environmental agents interfere with immune cell functions. However, at the current state of knowledge the usefulness of these assays for immunotoxicity screening in the context of chemical hazard assessment appears questionable. This is mainly due to a lack of assay standardization, and an insufficient knowledge of assay performance with respect to false positive or false negative signals for the different toxicant groups and different immune functions. Also the predictivity of the in vitro immunotoxicity assays for the in vivo immunotoxic response of fishes is uncertain. In conclusion, the currently available database is too limited to support the routine application of piscine in vitro assays as screening tool for assessing immunotoxic potentials of environmental chemicals to fish.

Immunotoxic effects of metal-based nanoparticles in fish and bivalves.

There is a global research interest in metal nanoparticles (MNPs) due to their diverse applications, rapidly increasing use, and increased presence in the aquatic environment. Currently, most MNPs in the environment are at levels unlikely to cause overt toxicity. Sub-lethal effects that MNPs may induce, notable immunotoxicity, could however have significant health implications. Thus, deciphering the immunological interactions of MNPs with aquatic organisms constitutes a much-needed area of research. In this article, we critically assess the evidence for immunotoxic effects of MNPs in bivalves and fish, as key wildlife sentinels with widely differing ecological niches that are used as models in ecotoxicology. The first part of this review details the properties, fate, and fundamental physicochemical behavior of MNPs in the aquatic ecosystem. We then consider the toxicokinetics of MNP uptake, accumulation, and deposition in fish and bivalves. The main body of the review then focuses on immune reactions in response to MNPs exposure in bivalves and fish illustrating their immunotoxic potential. Finally, we identify major knowledge gaps in our current understanding of the implications of MNPs exposure for immunological functions and the associated health consequences for bivalves and fish, as well as the general lessons learned on the immunotoxic properties of the emerging class of nanoparticulate contaminants in fish and bivalves.

Xenobiotic metabolism and its physiological consequences in high-Antarctic Notothenioid fishes.

The Antarctic ecosystem is progressively exposed to anthropogenic contaminants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). So far, it is largely unknown if PAHs leave a mark in the physiology of high-Antarctic fish. We approached this issue via two avenues: first, we examined the functional response of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), which is a molecular initiating event of many toxic effects of PAHs in biota. Chionodraco hamatus and Trematomus loennbergii served as representatives for high-Antarctic Notothenioids, and Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua as non-polar reference species. We sequenced and cloned the Ahr ligand binding domain (LBD) of the Notothenioids and deployed a GAL4-based luciferase reporter gene assay expressing the Ahr LBD. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), beta-naphthoflavone and chrysene were used as ligands for the reporter gene assay. Second, we investigated the energetic costs of Ahr activation in isolated liver cells of the Notothenioids during acute, non-cytotoxic BaP exposure. In the reporter assay, the Ahr LBD of Atlantic cod and the Antarctic Notothenioids were activated by the ligands tested herein. In the in vitro assays with isolated liver cells of high-Antarctic Notothenioids, BaP exposure had no effect on overall respiration, but caused shifts in the respiration dedicated to protein synthesis. Thus, our study demonstrated that high-Antarctic fish possess a functional Ahr that can be ligand-activated in a concentration-dependent manner by environmental contaminants. This is associated with altered cost for cellular protein synthesis. Future studies have to show if the toxicant-induced activation of the Ahr pathway may lead to altered organism performance of Antarctic fish. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00300-021-02992-4.

Estrogens as immunotoxicants: 17α-ethinylestradiol exposure retards thymus development in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

Estrogenic endocrine disrupting compounds (EEDCs) can cause alterations in sexual development and reproductive function of fish. Growing evidence suggests that EEDCs can also interfere with development and function of innate immunity of fish. The present study examined a potential disruptive effect of EEDCs at field-relevant concentrations on the development of adaptive immunity, more specifically the thymus. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) were exposed from fertilization until 64 days post-fertilization (dpf) to environmentally relevant (3 and 10 ng/L) concentrations of the synthetic estrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2). The exposure duration covered the period of initial thymus differentiation to maximum growth. Thymus development was assessed by histological and morphometric (thymus area) analysis, thymocyte number, and transcript levels of thymocyte marker genes. Additionally, transcript levels of the estrogen receptors (esr1 and esr2a) were determined. The EE2 exposure altered sexual development (gonad differentiation, transcript levels of hepatic vitellogenin and estrogen receptors) of zebrafish, as expected. At the same time, the EE2 treatment reduced the thymus growth (thymus area, thymocyte number) and transcript levels of thymus marker genes. The expression of the thymic estrogen receptors responded to the EE2 exposure but in a different pattern than the hepatic estrogen receptors. After the 64-day-exposure period, the juvenile fish were transferred into clean water for another 95 days to assess the reversibility of EE2-induced effects. The thymic alterations were found to be reversible in female zebrafish but persisted in males. The present study provides the first evidence that the development of the fish adaptive immune system is sensitive to EEDCs, and that this takes place at concentrations similar to those that disrupt sexual development.

Immunotoxicity of Xenobiotics in Fish: A Role for the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR)?

The impact of anthropogenic contaminants on the immune system of fishes is an issue of growing concern. An important xenobiotic receptor that mediates effects of chemicals, such as halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (HAHs) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), is the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Fish toxicological research has focused on the role of this receptor in xenobiotic biotransformation as well as in causing developmental, cardiac, and reproductive toxicity. However, biomedical research has unraveled an important physiological role of the AhR in the immune system, what suggests that this receptor could be involved in immunotoxic effects of environmental contaminants. The aims of the present review are to critically discuss the available knowledge on (i) the expression and possible function of the AhR in the immune systems of teleost fishes; and (ii) the impact of AhR-activating xenobiotics on the immune systems of fish at the levels of immune gene expression, immune cell proliferation and immune cell function, immune pathology, and resistance to infectious disease. The existing information indicates that the AhR is expressed in the fish immune system, but currently, we have little understanding of its physiological role. Exposure to AhR-activating contaminants results in the modulation of numerous immune structural and functional parameters of fish. Despite the diversity of fish species studied and the experimental conditions investigated, the published findings rather uniformly point to immunosuppressive actions of xenobiotic AhR ligands in fish. These effects are often associated with increased disease susceptibility. The fact that fish populations from HAH- and PAH-contaminated environments suffer immune disturbances and elevated disease susceptibility highlights that the immunotoxic effects of AhR-activating xenobiotics bear environmental relevance.

It's a hard knock life for some: Heterogeneity in infection life history of salmonids influences parasite disease outcomes.

Heterogeneity in immunity occurs across numerous disease systems with individuals from the same population having diverse disease outcomes. Proliferative kidney disease (PKD) caused by Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae, is a persistent parasitic disease negatively impacting both wild and farmed salmonids. Little is known of how PKD is spread or maintained within wild susceptible populations. We investigated an aspect of fish disease that has been largely overlooked, that is, the role of the host phenotypic heterogeneity in disease outcome. We examined how host susceptibility to T. bryosalmonae infection, and the disease PKD, varied across different infection life-history stages and how it differs between naïve, re-infected and persistently infected hosts. We investigated the response to parasite exposure in host phenotypes with (a) different ages and (b) heterogeneous infection life histories. Among (a) the age phenotypes were young-of-the-year (YOY) fish and juvenile 1+ fish (fish older than one) and, for (b) juvenile 1+ infection survivors were either re-exposed or not re- exposed to the parasite and response phenotypes were assigned post-hoc dependant on infection status. In fish not re-exposed this included fish that cleared infection (CI) or had a persistent infection (PI). In fish re-exposed these included fish that were re-infected (RI), or re-exposed and uninfected (RCI). We assessed both parasite-centric (infection prevalence, parasite burden, malacospore transmission) and host-centric parameters (growth rates, disease severity, infection tolerance and the immune response). In (a), YOY fish, parasite success and disease severity were greater and differences in the immune response occurred, demonstrating an ontogenetic decline of susceptibility in older fish. In (b), in PI and RI fish, parasite success and disease severity were comparable. However, expression of several adaptive immunity markers was greater in RI fish, indicating concomitant immunity, as re-exposure did not intensify infection. We demonstrate the relevance of heterogeneity in infection life history on disease outcome and describe several distinctive features of immune ontogeny and protective immunity in this model not previously reported. The relevance of such themes on a population level requires greater research in many aquatic disease systems to generate clearer framework for understanding the spread and maintenance of aquatic pathogens.

Environmental Risk of Pesticides for Fish in Small- and Medium-Sized Streams of Switzerland.

This study assessed the acute and chronic risk of pesticides, singly and as mixtures, for fish using comprehensive chemical data of four monitoring studies conducted in small- and medium-sized streams of Switzerland between 2012 and 2018. Pesticides were ranked based on single substance risk quotients and relative contribution to mixture risk. Concentrations of the pyrethroid insecticides, λ-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin and deltamethrin, and the fungicides, carbendazim and fenpropimorph, posed acute or chronic single substance risks. Risk quotients of eighteen additional pesticides were equal or greater than 0.1, and thirteen of those contributed ≥30% to mixture risk. Relatively few substances dominated the mixture risk in most water samples, with chronic and acute maximum cumulative ratios never exceeding 5 and 7, respectively. A literature review of toxicity data showed that concentrations of several pesticides detected in Swiss streams were sufficient to cause direct sublethal effects on fish in laboratory studies. Based on the results of our study, we conclude that pesticides detected in Swiss streams, especially pyrethroid insecticides, fungicides and pesticide mixtures, pose a risk to fish health and can cause direct sublethal effects at environmental concentrations. Sensitive life stages of species with highly specialized life history traits may be particularly vulnerable; however, the lack of toxicity data for non-model species currently prevents a conclusive assessment across species.

Evaluation of an in vitro assay to screen for the immunotoxic potential of chemicals to fish.

A wide variety of environmental contaminants has been shown to disrupt immune functions of fish and may compromise their defense capability against pathogens. Immunotoxic effects, however, are rarely considered in ecotoxicological testing strategies. The aim of this study was to systematically evaluate the suitability of an in vitro immuno-assay using selected fish immune parameters to screen for chemicals with known immunotoxic potential and to differentiate them from non-immunotoxicants. Non-stimulated and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated head kidney leukocytes of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed for 3 h or 19 h to chemicals with different modes of action. As immune parameters, phagocytosis activity, oxidative burst activity and cytokine transcription (IL-1ß, TNFα, IL-10) were examined, accompanied by in silico modelling. The immunotoxicants dexamethasone, benzo(a)pyrene, ethinylestradiol and bisphenol A significantly altered the immune parameters at non-cytotoxic concentrations whereas diclofenac had only weak effects. However, the two baseline chemicals with no known immunotoxic potential, butanol and ethylene glycol, caused significant effects, too. From our results it appears that the in vitro fish leukocyte assay as performed in the present study has only a limited capacity for discriminating between immunotoxicants and non-immunotoxicants.

MyFishCheck: A Model to Assess Fish Welfare in Aquaculture.

Welfare in animal husbandry includes considerations of biology, ethics, ecology, law and economics. These diverse aspects must be translated into common quantifiable parameters and applicable methods to objectively assess welfare in animals. To assist this process in the field of aquaculture, where such methods are largely missing, we developed a model to assess fish welfare. A network of information was created to link needs, i.e., fundamental requirements for welfare, with parameters, i.e., quantifiable aspects of welfare. From this ontology, 80 parameters that are relevant for welfare, have practicable assessment methods and deliver reliable results were selected and incorporated into a model. The model, named MyFishCheck, allows the evaluation of welfare in five distinct modules: farm management, water quality, fish group behaviour, fish external and fish internal appearance, thereby yielding five individual grades categorising welfare ranging from critical, to poor, to acceptable, and good. To facilitate the use of the model, a software application was written. With its adaptability to different fish species, farming systems, regulations and purposes as well as its user-friendly digital version, MyFishCheck is a next step towards improved fish welfare assessment and provides a basis for ongoing positive developments for the industry, the farmers and the fish.

Bioavailability and impacts of estrogenic compounds from suspended sediment on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Numerous environmental pollutants have the potential to accumulate in sediments, and among them are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). It is well documented that water-borne exposure concentrations of some potent EDCs, more specifically estrogenic- active compounds (ECs), can impair the reproduction of fish. In contrast, little is known about the bioavailability and effects of sediment-associated ECs on fish. Particularly, when sediments are disturbed, e.g., during flood events, chemicals may be released from the sediment and become bioavailable. The main objectives of this study were to evaluate a) whether ECs from the sediment become bioavailable to fish when the sediment is suspended, and b) whether such exposure leads to endocrine responses in fish. Juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were exposed over 21 days to constantly suspended sediments in the following treatments: i) a contaminated sediment from the Luppe River, representing a "hotspot" for EC accumulation, ii) a reference sediment (exhibiting only background contamination), iii) three dilutions, 2-, 4- and 8-fold of Luppe sediment diluted with the reference sediment, and iv) a water-only control. Measured estrogenic activity using in vitro bioassays as well as target analysis of nonylphenol and estrone via LC-MS/MS in sediment, water, fish plasma, as well as bile samples, confirmed that ECs became bioavailable from the sediment during suspension. ECs were dissolved in the water phase, as indicated by passive samplers, and were readily taken up by the exposed trout. An estrogenic response of fish to Luppe sediment was indicated by increased abundance of transcripts of typical estrogen responsive genes, i.e. vitelline envelope protein α in the liver and vitellogenin induction in the skin mucus. Altered gene expression profiles of trout in response to suspended sediment from the Luppe River suggest that in addition to ECs a number of other contaminants such as dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals were remobilized during suspension. The results of the present study demonstrated that sediments not only function as a sink for ECs but can turn into a significant source of pollution when sediments are resuspended as during flood-events. This highlights the need for sediment quality criteria considering bioavailability sediment-bound contaminants in context of flood events.

Thymus development in the zebrafish (Danio rerio) from an ecoimmunology perspective.

The thymus is present in all gnathostome vertebrates and is an essential organ for the adaptive immune system via the generation of functional mature T-cells. Over the life span of mammals, the thymus undergoes morphological and functional alterations, including an age-related involution, which in humans starts in early life. Life history tradeoffs have been suggested as possible reasons for thymus involution. While in teleost fish, only a few studies have investigated alterations of thymus structure and function over different life stages, resulting in a fragmented database. Here, we investigated the thymus growth of zebrafish (Danio rerio) from early life, throughout puberty and reproductive stage, up to 1-year-old. We assessed thymus growth by histological and morphometric analyses and thymocyte numbers. Thymus function was assessed by measuring the transcripts of the thymocyte marker genes, ikaros, tcrα, and tcrδ. Additionally, we analyzed gonad maturity and tail homogenate vitellogenin concentrations to align thymus status with the status of the reproductive system. Our results showed that the zebrafish thymus, in contrast to the human thymus, grew strongly during early life and puberty but started to undergo involution when the fish reached the reproductive age. The involution was characterized by reduced thymus area and thymocyte number, altered histoarchitecture, and decreasing thymocyte marker gene transcript levels. Our findings suggest that age-related changes of the zebrafish thymus do exist and could be partly explained in terms of resource tradeoffs, but also in terms of the ontogenetically late development of a functional adaptive immune system in teleosts.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Signaling Is Functional in Immune Cells of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

The arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is an important signaling pathway in the immune system of mammals. In addition to its physiological functions, the receptor mediates the immunotoxic actions of a diverse range of environmental contaminants that bind to and activate the AhR, including planar halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (PHAHs or dioxin-like compounds) and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). AhR-binding xenobiotics are immunotoxic not only to mammals but to teleost fish as well. To date, however, it is unknown if the AhR pathway is active in the immune system of fish and thus may act as molecular initiating event in the immunotoxicity of AhR-binding xenobiotics to fish. The present study aims to examine the presence of functional AhR signaling in immune cells of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Focus is given to the toxicologically relevant AhR2 clade. By means of RT-qPCR and in situ hybdridization, we show that immune cells of rainbow trout express ahr 2α and ahr 2ß mRNA; this applies for immune cells isolated from the head kidney and from the peripheral blood. Furthermore, we show that in vivo as well as in vitro exposure to the AhR ligand, benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), causes upregulation of the AhR-regulated gene, cytochrome p4501a, in rainbow trout immune cells, and that this induction is inhibited by co-treatment with an AhR antagonist. Taken together, these findings provide evidence that functional AhR signaling exists in the immune cells of the teleost species, rainbow trout.

In Vitro Biotransformation Assays Using Liver S9 Fractions and Hepatocytes from Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): Overcoming Challenges with Difficult to Test Fragrance Chemicals.

In vitro metabolic stability assays using rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) isolated hepatocytes (RT-HEP) or hepatic S9 fractions (RT-S9) were introduced to provide biotransformation rate data for the assessment of chemical bioaccumulation in fish. The present study explored the suitability of the RT-HEP and RT-S9 assays for difficult test chemicals, and the in vitro-based predictions were compared to in silico-based predictions and in vivo-measured bioconcentration factors (BCFs). The results show that volatile or reactive chemicals can be tested with minor modifications of the in vitro protocols. For hydrophobic chemicals, a passive dosing technique was developed. Finally, a design-of-experiment approach was used to identify optimal in vitro assay conditions. The modified assay protocols were applied to 10 fragrances with diverse physicochemical properties. The in vitro intrinsic clearance rates were higher in the S9 than in the hepatocyte assay, but the in vitro-in vivo (IVIV) predictions were comparable between the 2 assays. The IVIV predictions classified the test chemicals as nonbioaccumulative (BCF < 2000), which was in agreement with the in vivo data but in contrast to the in silico-based predictions. The findings from the present study provide strong evidence that the RT-HEP and RT-S9 assays can provide reliable estimates of in vivo biotransformation rates for test chemicals with difficult physicochemical properties. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:2396-2408. © 2020 SETAC.

Back From the Brink: Alterations in B and T Cell Responses Modulate Recovery of Rainbow Trout From Chronic Immunopathological Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae Infection.

Proliferative kidney disease (PKD) caused by the myxozoan parasite Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae is one of the most serious infectious diseases negatively impacting farmed and wild salmonids throughout Europe and North America. PKD pathogenesis results in a massive B cell proliferation and dysregulation with aberrant immunoglobulin production and plasma cell differentiation along with a decrease in myeloid cells and inhibition of innate pathways. Despite the huge immunopathological reaction in the kidney during infection, under specific conditions, fish can survive and return to full fitness. Fish are unique in this ability to recover renal structure and functionality from extensive tissue damage in contrast to mammals. However, only limited knowledge exists regarding the host immune response coinciding with PKD recovery. Moreover, almost no studies of the immune response during disease recovery exist in fish. We utilized the rainbow trout-T. bryosalmonae system as an immunological model of disease recovery. Our results demonstrated that recovery is preceded by an intense immune response at the transcript level, decreasing parasite burden, and an increased degree of kidney inflammation. Later in the recovery phase, the immune response transpired with a significant decrease in lymphocytes and an increase in myeloid cells. These lymphocytes populations contained lower levels of B cells comparative to the control in the anterior and posterior kidney. Additionally, there was downregulation of several transcripts used as markers for plasma cells (blimp1, igt sec, igm sec, igd sec, and cd38) and T cell subsets (cd4, cd8α, cd8ß, and tcrß). The decrease in these T cell transcripts significantly correlated with decreasing parasite intensity. Alternatively, there was strong upregulation of pax-5 and igt mem. This suggests a change in B cell processes during the recovery phase relative to clinical PKD may be necessary for the host to re-establish homeostasis in terms of an arrest in the dominant antibody like response transitioning to a transcriptional profile associated with resting B cells. The knowledge generated here in combination with earlier studies illuminates the full power of analyzing the entire trajectory of disease from the normal healthy state to recovery enabling the measurement of an immune response to pinpoint a specific disease stage.