Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities for Managing Potentially Volatile Police-Public Interactions: A Narrative Review.

We conducted a narrative review of existing literature to identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) necessary for officers who police in democratic societies to successfully manage potentially volatile police-public interactions. This review revealed 10 such KSAs that are frequently discussed in the literature. These KSAs include: (1) knowledge of policies and laws; (2) an understanding of mental health-related issues; (3) an ability to interact effectively with, and show respect for, individuals from diverse community groups; (4) awareness and management of stress effects; (5) communication skills; (6) decision-making and problem-solving skills; (7) perceptual skills; (8) motor skills related to use-of-force; (9) emotion and behavior regulation; and (10) an ability to treat people in a procedurally just manner. Following our review, we conducted semi-structured interviews (N = 7) with researchers who specialize in police training and adult education, interactions with individuals in crisis, and racialized policing, as well as two police trainers with expertise in de-escalation and use-of-force training. These interviews confirmed the importance of the 10 KSAs and highlighted two additional KSAs that are likely to be critical: understanding the role of policing in a free and democratic society and tactical knowledge and skills. To ensure that police-public interactions are managed effectively, police trainers may want to focus on the development and evaluation of these KSAs-something that is not always done currently.

A Reasonable Officer: Examining the Relationships Among Stress, Training, and Performance in a Highly Realistic Lethal Force Scenario.

Under conditions of physiological stress, officers are sometimes required to make split-second life-or-death decisions, where deficits in performance can have tragic outcomes, including serious injury or death and strained police-community relations. The current study assessed the performance of 122 active-duty police officers during a realistic lethal force scenario to examine whether performance was affected by the officer's level of operational skills training, years of police service, and stress reactivity. Results demonstrated that the scenario produced elevated heart rates (i.e., 150 beats per minute), as well as perceptual and cognitive distortions, such as tunnel vision, commensurate with those observed in naturalistic use of force encounters. The average performance rating from the scenario was 59%, with 27% of participants making at least one lethal force error. Elevated stress reactivity was a predictor of poorer performance and increased lethal force errors. Level of training and years of police service had differential and complex effects on both performance and lethal force errors. Our results illustrate the need to critically reflect on police training practices and continue to make evidence-based improvements to training. The findings also highlight that while training may significantly improve outcomes, flawless performance is likely not probable, given the limits of human performance under stress. Implications for the objective reasonableness standard, which is used to assess the appropriateness of force in courts of law, are discussed.

An Evaluation of a Community-Based Mobile Crisis Intervention Team in a Small Canadian Police Service.

The current study examines the impact of a recently implemented community-based Crisis Outreach and Support Team (COAST) in a small Canadian police service. COAST pairs a police officer from the South Simcoe Police Service in Ontario, Canada with a crisis response worker from either the Canadian Mental Health Association or York Support Services Network. Through a pre- versus post-implementation analysis, key outcome variables were examined. Results demonstrated that there were significant differences between general patrol and COAST in terms of time spent on crisis-related calls and this was associated with a reduced cost to the service. Additionally, compared to pre-implementation rates, the Service saw an increase in community resources provided to clients in need and a decrease in involuntary apprehensions. These initial findings provide some preliminary support for the value of the COAST initiative in the South Simcoe Police Service.

Stress-Activity Mapping: Physiological Responses During General Duty Police Encounters.

Policing is a highly stressful and dangerous profession that involves a complex set of environmental, psychosocial, and health risks. The current study examined autonomic stress responses experienced by 64 police officers, during general duty calls for service (CFS) and interactions with the public. Advancing previous research, this study utilized GPS and detailed operational police records as objective evidence of specific activities throughout a CFS. These data were then used to map officers' heart rate to both the phase of a call (e.g., dispatch, enroute) and incident factors (e.g., call priority, use-of-force). Furthermore, physical movement (i.e., location and inertia) was tracked and assisted in differentiating whether cardiovascular reactivity was due to physical or psychological stress. Officer characteristics, including years of service and training profiles, were examined to conduct a preliminary exploration of whether experience and relevant operational skills training impacted cardiovascular reactivity. Study results provide foundational evidence that CFS factors, specifically the phase of the call (i.e., arrival on scene, encountering a subject) and incident factors (i.e., call priority, weapons, arrest, use-of-force), influence physiological stress responses, which may be associated with short-term performance impairments and long-term health outcomes. Implications of research findings for operational policing, police training, and health research are discussed.

Excited delirium syndrome (ExDS): Situational factors and risks to officer safety in non-fatal use of force encounters.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Police use of force (UoF) encounters include individuals with Excited Delirium Syndrome (ExDS) with some frequency. Situational factors and risks to officer safety associated with these encounters have not been well studied. We examined the likelihood that subjects displaying various concomitant features of ExDS were under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol. We also examined the extent of subject violence, and the impact of this behaviour on the encounter (e.g., the odds of a struggle). Greater understanding of the prevalence of ExDS and the specific risk it represents to law enforcement officers and the subjects they encounter will guide appropriate policy and response strategies. METHODS: A prospective evaluation of a consecutive cohort of subjects involved in UoF encounters with police was conducted. Data were collected from January 2012 to December 2015. Consistent with previous research, the presence of six or more features was used to identify probable cases of ExDS. The odds that subjects in a state of probable ExDS were under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol was calculated and compared against subjects who exhibited less than three features of ExDS. In addition, the violent nature of subjects (e.g., the odds of a subject being in possession of a weapon) displaying various concomitant features of the syndrome was examined. The number of sudden and unexpected arrest-related death (ARDs) was documented. RESULTS: UoF occurred in 9006 of 10.9 million police-public interactions (0.08%). Of the UoF encounters, 156 (1.7%) subjects displayed six or more features of ExDS. With four recorded sudden and unexpected ARDs of violent and agitated subjects in our cohort, up to 6.3% of these subjects experiencing probable ExDS could be expected to be at risk of sudden death. Logistic regression analyses indicated that there were significantly higher odds that subjects exhibiting more features of ExDS (e.g., six or more) were under the influence of drugs. On the other hand, there were significantly lower odds that individuals exhibiting ExDS were under the influence of alcohol alone. In addition, those displaying a greater number of features demonstrated higher odds of engaging in assaultive behaviour, presenting a threat of grievous bodily harm or death, and being involved in a struggle that went to the ground with an officer. A slight increase in the presence of weapons was observed in encounters with probable ExDS. CONCLUSION: Our study provides important information to guide the development of policy and procedure in law enforcement. Police encounter a subject with ExDS 1 in every 58 UoF incidents (1.7%). Those individuals are at higher odds of being intoxicated with drugs according to officers' assessments and at risk of being further exerted during a struggle on the ground, both of which appear to play a major role in deaths associated to ExDS. There is a demonstrable increase in risk to officers and public safety from the violent behaviour displayed by subjects presenting a greater number of features of ExDS. Our data suggests that up to 6.3% of subjects in a state of ExDS could succumb to ARDs; however, we cannot comment on the prevalence of death for persons with ExDS who do not encounter police. Further research is needed to determine which force options optimize outcome for police and subjects. Additionally, research surrounding pathophysiology leading to death should focus on subjects with six or more features of ExDS. Ultimately, a better understanding in this area will contribute to improving the outcomes of these encounters for those suffering from ExDS and those tasked with assisting them.