Transition of human γ-tubulin ring complex into a closed conformation during microtubule nucleation.

Microtubules are essential for intracellular organization and chromosome segregation. They are nucleated by the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC). However, isolated vertebrate γTuRC adopts an open conformation that deviates from the microtubule structure, raising the question of the nucleation mechanism. In this study, we determined cryo-electron microscopy structures of human γTuRC bound to a nascent microtubule. Structural changes of the complex into a closed conformation ensure that γTuRC templates the 13-protofilament microtubules that exist in human cells. Closure is mediated by a latch that interacts with incorporating tubulin, making it part of the closing mechanism. Further rearrangements involve all γTuRC subunits and the removal of the actin-containing luminal bridge. Our proposed mechanism of microtubule nucleation by human γTuRC relies on large-scale structural changes that are likely the target of regulation in cells.

BICD2 phosphorylation regulates dynein function and centrosome separation in G2 and M.

The activity of dynein is regulated by a number of adaptors that mediate its interaction with dynactin, effectively activating the motor complex while also connecting it to different cargos. The regulation of adaptors is consequently central to dynein physiology but remains largely unexplored. We now describe that one of the best-known dynein adaptors, BICD2, is effectively activated through phosphorylation. In G2, phosphorylation of BICD2 by CDK1 promotes its interaction with PLK1. In turn, PLK1 phosphorylation of a single residue in the N-terminus of BICD2 results in a structural change that facilitates the interaction with dynein and dynactin, allowing the formation of active motor complexes. Moreover, modified BICD2 preferentially interacts with the nucleoporin RanBP2 once RanBP2 has been phosphorylated by CDK1. BICD2 phosphorylation is central for dynein recruitment to the nuclear envelope, centrosome tethering to the nucleus and centrosome separation in the G2 and M phases of the cell cycle. This work reveals adaptor activation through phosphorylation as crucial for the spatiotemporal regulation of dynein activity.

CryoEM of RUVBL1-RUVBL2-ZNHIT2, a complex that interacts with pre-mRNA-processing-splicing factor 8.

Biogenesis of the U5 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) is an essential and highly regulated process. In particular, PRPF8, one of U5 snRNP main components, requires HSP90 working in concert with R2TP, a cochaperone complex containing RUVBL1 and RUVBL2 AAA-ATPases, and additional factors that are still poorly characterized. Here, we use biochemistry, interaction mapping, mass spectrometry and cryoEM to study the role of ZNHIT2 in the regulation of the R2TP chaperone during the biogenesis of PRPF8. ZNHIT2 forms a complex with R2TP which depends exclusively on the direct interaction of ZNHIT2 with the RUVBL1-RUVBL2 ATPases. The cryoEM analysis of this complex reveals that ZNHIT2 alters the conformation and nucleotide state of RUVBL1-RUVBL2, affecting its ATPase activity. We characterized the interactions between R2TP, PRPF8, ZNHIT2, ECD and AAR2 proteins. Interestingly, PRPF8 makes a direct interaction with R2TP and this complex can incorporate ZNHIT2 and other proteins involved in the biogenesis of PRPF8 such as ECD and AAR2. Together, these results show that ZNHIT2 participates in the assembly of the U5 snRNP as part of a network of contacts between assembly factors required for PRPF8 biogenesis and the R2TP-HSP90 chaperone, while concomitantly regulating the structure and nucleotide state of R2TP.

Colchicine Blocks Tubulin Heterodimer Recycling by Tubulin Cofactors TBCA, TBCB, and TBCE.

Colchicine has been used to treat gout and, more recently, to effectively prevent autoinflammatory diseases and both primary and recurrent episodes of pericarditis. The anti-inflammatory action of colchicine seems to result from irreversible inhibition of tubulin polymerization and microtubule (MT) assembly by binding to the tubulin heterodimer, avoiding the signal transduction required to the activation of the entire NLRP3 inflammasome. Emerging results show that the MT network is a potential regulator of cardiac mechanics. Here, we investigated how colchicine impacts in tubulin folding cofactors TBCA, TBCB, and TBCE activities. We show that TBCA is abundant in mouse heart insoluble protein extracts. Also, a decrease of the TBCA/ß-tubulin complex followed by an increase of free TBCA is observed in human cells treated with colchicine. The presence of free TBCA is not observed in cells treated with other anti-mitotic agents such as nocodazole or cold shock, neither after translation inhibition by cycloheximide. In vitro assays show that colchicine inhibits tubulin heterodimer dissociation by TBCE/TBCB, probably by interfering with interactions of TBCE with tubulin dimers, leading to free TBCA. Manipulation of TBCA levels, either by RNAi or overexpression results in decreased levels of tubulin heterodimers. Together, these data strongly suggest that TBCA is mainly receiving ß-tubulin from the dissociation of pre-existing heterodimers instead of newly synthesized tubulins. The TBCE/TBCB+TBCA system is crucial for controlling the critical concentration of free tubulin heterodimers and MT dynamics in the cells by recycling the tubulin heterodimers. It is conceivable that colchicine affects tubulin heterodimer recycling through the TBCE/TBCB+TBCA system producing the known benefits in the treatment of pericardium inflammation.

Assembly of the asymmetric human γ-tubulin ring complex by RUVBL1-RUVBL2 AAA ATPase.

The microtubule nucleator γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC) is essential for the function of microtubule organizing centers such as the centrosome. Since its discovery over two decades ago, γTuRC has evaded in vitro reconstitution and thus detailed structure-function studies. Here, we show that a complex of RuvB-like protein 1 (RUVBL1) and RUVBL2 "RUVBL" controls assembly and composition of γTuRC in human cells. Likewise, RUVBL assembles γTuRC from a minimal set of core subunits in a heterologous coexpression system. RUVBL interacts with γTuRC subcomplexes but is not part of fully assembled γTuRC. Purified, reconstituted γTuRC has nucleation activity and resembles native γTuRC as revealed by its cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure at ~4.0-Šresolution. We further use cryo-EM to identify features that determine the intricate, higher-order γTuRC architecture. Our work finds RUVBL as an assembly factor that regulates γTuRC in cells and allows production of recombinant γTuRC for future in-depth mechanistic studies.

Regulation of RUVBL1-RUVBL2 AAA-ATPases by the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay factor DHX34, as evidenced by Cryo-EM.

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a surveillance pathway that degrades aberrant mRNAs and also regulates the expression of a wide range of physiological transcripts. RUVBL1 and RUVBL2 AAA-ATPases form an hetero-hexameric ring that is part of several macromolecular complexes such as INO80, SWR1, and R2TP. Interestingly, RUVBL1-RUVBL2 ATPase activity is required for NMD activation by an unknown mechanism. Here, we show that DHX34, an RNA helicase regulating NMD initiation, directly interacts with RUVBL1-RUVBL2 in vitro and in cells. Cryo-EM reveals that DHX34 induces extensive changes in the N-termini of every RUVBL2 subunit in the complex, stabilizing a conformation that does not bind nucleotide and thereby down-regulates ATP hydrolysis of the complex. Using ATPase-deficient mutants, we find that DHX34 acts exclusively on the RUVBL2 subunits. We propose a model, where DHX34 acts to couple RUVBL1-RUVBL2 ATPase activity to the assembly of factors required to initiate the NMD response.

Hands on Methods for High Resolution Cryo-Electron Microscopy Structures of Heterogeneous Macromolecular Complexes.

Electron microscopy of frozen hydrated samples (cryo-EM) is a powerful structural technique that allows the direct study of functional macromolecular complexes in an almost physiological environment. Protein macromolecular complexes are dynamic structures that usually hold together by an intricate network of protein-protein interactions that can be weak and transient. Moreover, a standard feature of many of these complexes is that they behave as nanomachines able to undergo functionally relevant conformational changes in one or several complex components. Among all the other main structural biology techniques, only cryo-EM has the potential of successfully dealing at the same time with both sample heterogeneity and inherent flexibility. The cryo-EM field is currently undergoing a revolution thanks to groundbreaking technical developments that have brought within our reach the possibility of solving the structure of biological complexes at atomic resolution. These technical developments have been mostly focused on new direct electron detector technology and improved sample preparation methods leading to better image quality. This fact has in turn required the development of new and better image processing algorithms to make the most of the higher quality data. The aim of this review is to provide a brief overview of some reported examples of single particle analysis strategies designed to find different conformational and compositional states within target macromolecular complex and specifically to deal with it to reach higher resolution information. Different image processing methodologies specifically aimed to symmetric or pseudo-symmetric protein complexes will also be discussed.

CryoEM reveals how the complement membrane attack complex ruptures lipid bilayers.

The membrane attack complex (MAC) is one of the immune system's first responders. Complement proteins assemble on target membranes to form pores that lyse pathogens and impact tissue homeostasis of self-cells. How MAC disrupts the membrane barrier remains unclear. Here we use electron cryo-microscopy and flicker spectroscopy to show that MAC interacts with lipid bilayers in two distinct ways. Whereas C6 and C7 associate with the outer leaflet and reduce the energy for membrane bending, C8 and C9 traverse the bilayer increasing membrane rigidity. CryoEM reconstructions reveal plasticity of the MAC pore and demonstrate how C5b6 acts as a platform, directing assembly of a giant ß-barrel whose structure is supported by a glycan scaffold. Our work provides a structural basis for understanding how ß-pore forming proteins breach the membrane and reveals a mechanism for how MAC kills pathogens and regulates cell functions.

How novel structures inform understanding of complement function.

During the last decade, the complement field has experienced outstanding advancements in the mechanistic understanding of how complement activators are recognized, what C3 activation means, how protein complexes like the C3 convertases and the membrane attack complex are assembled, and how positive and negative complement regulators perform their function. All of this has been made possible mostly because of the contributions of structural biology to the study of the complement components. The wealth of novel structural data has frequently provided support to previously held knowledge, but often has added alternative and unexpected insights into complement function. Here, we will review some of these findings focusing in the alternative and terminal complement pathways.

Terminal complexes of the complement system: new structural insights and their relevance to function.

Complement is a key component of innate immunity in health and a powerful driver of inflammation and tissue injury in disease. The biological and pathological effects of complement activation are mediated by activation products. These come in two flavors: (i) proteolytic fragments of complement proteins (C3, C4, C5) generated during activation that bind specific receptors on target cells to mediate effects; (ii) the multimolecular membrane attack complex generated from the five terminal complement proteins that directly binds to and penetrates target cell membranes. Several recent publications have described structural insights that have changed perceptions of the nature of this membrane attack complex. This review will describe these recent advances in understanding of the structure of the membrane attack complex and its by-product the fluid-phase terminal complement complex and relate these new structural insights to functional consequences and cell responses to complement membrane attack.

Structural basis of complement membrane attack complex formation.

In response to complement activation, the membrane attack complex (MAC) assembles from fluid-phase proteins to form pores in lipid bilayers. MAC directly lyses pathogens by a 'multi-hit' mechanism; however, sublytic MAC pores on host cells activate signalling pathways. Previous studies have described the structures of individual MAC components and subcomplexes; however, the molecular details of its assembly and mechanism of action remain unresolved. Here we report the electron cryo-microscopy structure of human MAC at subnanometre resolution. Structural analyses define the stoichiometry of the complete pore and identify a network of interaction interfaces that determine its assembly mechanism. MAC adopts a 'split-washer' configuration, in contrast to the predicted closed ring observed for perforin and cholesterol-dependent cytolysins. Assembly precursors partially penetrate the lipid bilayer, resulting in an irregular ß-barrel pore. Our results demonstrate how differences in symmetric and asymmetric components of the MAC underpin a molecular basis for pore formation and suggest a mechanism of action that extends beyond membrane penetration.

The structure of the complex between α-tubulin, TBCE and TBCB reveals a tubulin dimer dissociation mechanism.

Tubulin proteostasis is regulated by a group of molecular chaperones termed tubulin cofactors (TBC). Whereas tubulin heterodimer formation is well-characterized biochemically, its dissociation pathway is not clearly understood. Here, we carried out biochemical assays to dissect the role of the human TBCE and TBCB chaperones in α-tubulin-ß-tubulin dissociation. We used electron microscopy and image processing to determine the three-dimensional structure of the human TBCE, TBCB and α-tubulin (αEB) complex, which is formed upon α-tubulin-ß-tubulin heterodimer dissociation by the two chaperones. Docking the atomic structures of domains of these proteins, including the TBCE UBL domain, as we determined by X-ray crystallography, allowed description of the molecular architecture of the αEB complex. We found that heterodimer dissociation is an energy-independent process that takes place through a disruption of the α-tubulin-ß-tubulin interface that is caused by a steric interaction between ß-tubulin and the TBCE cytoskeleton-associated protein glycine-rich (CAP-Gly) and leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domains. The protruding arrangement of chaperone ubiquitin-like (UBL) domains in the αEB complex suggests that there is a direct interaction of this complex with the proteasome, thus mediating α-tubulin degradation.

Assisted protein folding at low temperature: evolutionary adaptation of the Antarctic fish chaperonin CCT and its client proteins.

Eukaryotic ectotherms of the Southern Ocean face energetic challenges to protein folding assisted by the cytosolic chaperonin CCT. We hypothesize that CCT and its client proteins (CPs) have co-evolved molecular adaptations that facilitate CCT-CP interaction and the ATP-driven folding cycle at low temperature. To test this hypothesis, we compared the functional and structural properties of CCT-CP systems from testis tissues of an Antarctic fish, Gobionotothen gibberifrons (Lönnberg) (habitat/body T = -1.9 to +2°C), and of the cow (body T = 37°C). We examined the temperature dependence of the binding of denatured CPs (ß-actin, ß-tubulin) by fish and bovine CCTs, both in homologous and heterologous combinations and at temperatures between -4°C and 20°C, in a buffer conducive to binding of the denatured CP to the open conformation of CCT. In homologous combination, the percentage of G. gibberifrons CCT bound to CP declined linearly with increasing temperature, whereas the converse was true for bovine CCT. Binding of CCT to heterologous CPs was low, irrespective of temperature. When reactions were supplemented with ATP, G. gibberifrons CCT catalyzed the folding and release of actin at 2°C. The ATPase activity of apo-CCT from G. gibberifrons at 4°C was ∼2.5-fold greater than that of apo-bovine CCT, whereas equivalent activities were observed at 20°C. Based on these results, we conclude that the catalytic folding cycle of CCT from Antarctic fishes is partially compensated at their habitat temperature, probably by means of enhanced CP-binding affinity and increased flexibility of the CCT subunits.

Bacterial tubulin distinct loop sequences and primitive assembly properties support its origin from a eukaryotic tubulin ancestor.

The structure of the unique bacterial tubulin BtubA/B from Prosthecobacter is very similar to eukaryotic αß-tubulin but, strikingly, BtubA/B fold without eukaryotic chaperones. Our sequence comparisons indicate that BtubA and BtubB do not really correspond to either α- or ß-tubulin but have mosaic sequences with intertwining features from both. Their nucleotide-binding loops are more conserved, and their more divergent sequences correspond to discrete surface zones of tubulin involved in microtubule assembly and binding to eukaryotic cytosolic chaperonin, which is absent from the Prosthecobacter dejongeii draft genome. BtubA/B cooperatively assembles over a wider range of conditions than αß-tubulin, forming pairs of protofilaments that coalesce into bundles instead of microtubules, and it lacks the ability to differentially interact with divalent cations and bind typical tubulin drugs. Assembled BtubA/B contain close to one bound GTP and GDP. Both BtubA and BtubB subunits hydrolyze GTP, leading to disassembly. The mutant BtubA/B-S144G in the tubulin signature motif GGG(T/S)G(S/T)G has strongly inhibited GTPase, but BtubA-T147G/B does not, suggesting that BtubB is a more active GTPase, like ß-tubulin. BtubA/B chimera bearing the ß-tubulin loops M, H1-S2, and S9-S10 in BtubB fold, assemble, and have reduced GTPase activity. However, introduction of the α-tubulin loop S9-S10 with its unique eight-residue insertion impaired folding. From the sequence analyses, its primitive assembly features, and the properties of the chimeras, we propose that BtubA/B were acquired shortly after duplication of a spontaneously folding α- and ß-tubulin ancestor, possibly by horizontal gene transfer from a primitive eukaryotic cell, followed by divergent evolution.

Crystal structure of the open conformation of the mammalian chaperonin CCT in complex with tubulin.

Protein folding is assisted by molecular chaperones. CCT (chaperonin containing TCP-1, or TRiC) is a 1-MDa oligomer that is built by two rings comprising eight different 60-kDa subunits. This chaperonin regulates the folding of important proteins including actin, α-tubulin and ß-tubulin. We used an electron density map at 5.5 Å resolution to reconstruct CCT, which showed a substrate in the inner cavities of both rings. Here we present the crystal structure of the open conformation of this nanomachine in complex with tubulin, providing information about the mechanism by which it aids tubulin folding. The structure showed that the substrate interacts with loops in the apical and equatorial domains of CCT. The organization of the ATP-binding pockets suggests that the substrate is stretched inside the cavity. Our data provide the basis for understanding the function of this chaperonin.