Colonization kinetics and implantation follow-up of the sewage microbiome in an urban wastewater treatment plant.

The Seine-Morée wastewater treatment plant (SM_WWTP), with a capacity of 100,000 population-equivalents, was fed with raw domestic wastewater during all of its start-up phase. Its microbiome resulted from the spontaneous evolution of wastewater-borne microorganisms. This rare opportunity allowed us to analyze the sequential microbiota colonization and implantation follow up during the start-up phase of this WWTP by means of regular sampling carried out over 8 months until the establishment of a stable and functional ecosystem. During the study, biological nitrification-denitrification and dephosphatation occurred 68 days after the start-up of the WWTP, followed by flocs decantation 91 days later. High throughput sequencing of 18S and 16S rRNA genes was performed using Illumina's MiSeq and PGM Ion Torrent platforms respectively, generating 584,647 16S and 521,031 18S high-quality sequence rDNA reads. Analyses of 16S and 18S rDNA datasets show three colonization phases occurring concomitantly with nitrification, dephosphatation and floc development processes. Thus, we could define three microbiota profiles that sequentially colonized the SM_WWTP: the early colonizers, the late colonizers and the continuous spectrum population. Shannon and inverse Simpson diversity indices indicate that the highest microbiota diversity was reached at days 133 and 82 for prokaryotes and eukaryotes respectively; after that, the structure and complexity of the wastewater microbiome reached its functional stability. This study demonstrates that physicochemical parameters and microbial metabolic interactions are the main forces shaping microbial community structure, gradually building up and maintaining a functionally stable microbial ecosystem.

Molecular analysis of methanogen populations and their interactions within anaerobic sludge digesters.

Knowledge of archaeal population structure, function and interactions is of great interest for a deeper understanding of the anaerobic digestion step in wastewater treatment process, that represents a bottle neck in the optimization of digesters performance. Although culture-independent techniques have enabled the exploration of archaeal population in such systems, their population dynamics and interactions still require further investigation. In the present study, 2646 almost full archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences retrieved from 22 anaerobic digesters located worldwide were analyzed and classified into 83 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) for Euryarchaeotes and 2 OTUs for Crenarchaeotes. Among the Euryarchaeotes, Methanosarcinales represent the predominant archaeal population (47.5% of total sequences), followed by the ARC I (WSA2) lineage (25.3%), Methanomicrobiales (19.9%) and Methanobacteriales (1.9%). Theses lineages are predominant in nine, five, two and one digesters respectively. However, the remaining 5 digesters show no predominance of any methanogenic group. According to the predominance of theses lineages, 5 digester profiles were distinguished. This study revealed a clear interaction between the 4 methanogenic lineages. A core of 12 OTUs represented by five, four, two and one OTU for Methanosarcinales, Methanomicrobiales, ARC I and Methanobacteriales respectively were quantitatively abundant in at least 50% of the analyzed digesters. 16S rRNA targeted hybridization oligonucleotide probes targeting the predominant OTUs are being developed to follow their population dynamics under various parameters.

Eukaryotic molecular diversity at different steps of the wastewater treatment plant process reveals more phylogenetic novel lineages.

Wastewater microbiota represents important actors of organic depollution. Nowadays, some species used as bioindicators of the effluent quality are still identified by microscopy. In the present study, we investigated eukaryotic diversity at the different steps of the treatment process of a wastewater treatment plant (aerobic, anaerobic, clarifier basins and anaerobic digester) using the 18S rRNA gene sequencing approach. Of the 1519 analysed sequences, we identified 160 operational taxonomic units. Interestingly, 56.9% of the phylotypes were assigned to novel phylogenetic molecular species since they show <97% sequence identity with their nearest affiliated representative within public databases. Peritrichia ciliates were the most predominant group, with Epistylis as the most common genus. Although anaerobic, the digester appears to harbor many unclassified phylotypes of protozoa species. Novel lineages such as LKM11 and LKM118 were widely represented in the digester. Diversity values given by Shannon indexes show that the clarifier is the most diversified. This work will help designing molecular tools that are fast, reliable, and reproducible for monitoring wastewater depollution and studying phylogenetic relationships among the wonderful world of protists within this anthropogenic ecosystem.

[Microbiotes and metagenomics]. / Microbiotes et métagénomique.

Major technical advances were introduced in the study of microflora and microbial communities in the nineties. These are essentially analytical approaches conducted as frequently by brute force. What conclusions can be drawn from these analyses twenty years later? In terms of microbial compositions, monitoring and diagnosis, the results are impressive. But what do all these microorganisms do? What are the factors behind their associations and their maintenance? Gene inventories are approaching completion; they allow us to deepen some physiological processes but do not say much more. We have even begun to manipulate microbiota. But as often in the dialectic between theory and practice, it works but we are far from understanding how!

Microbial community structure associated with the high loading anaerobic codigestion of olive mill and abattoir wastewaters.

The effect of increasing the organic loading rates (OLRs) on the performance of the anaerobic codigestion of olive mill (OMW) and abattoir wastewaters (AW) was investigated under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. The structure of the microbial community was also monitored. Increasing OLR to 9g of chemical oxygen demand (COD) L(-1)d(-1) affected significantly the biogas yield and microbial diversity at 35°C. However, at 55°C digester remained stable until OLR of 12g of CODL(-1)d(-1) with higher COD removal (80%) and biogas yield (0.52Lg(-1) COD removed). Significant differences in the bacterial communities were detected between mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. The dominant phyla detected in the digester at both phases were the Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Synergistetes and Spirochaete. However, Verrucomicrobia, Proteobacteria and the candidate division BRC1 were only detected at thermophilic conditions. The Methanobacteriales and the Thermoplasmales were found as a high predominant archaeal member in the anaerobic sludge.

Co-occurence of Crenarchaeota, Thermoplasmata and methanogens in anaerobic sludge digesters.

16S rRNA Crenarchaeota and Thermoplasmata sequences retrieved from 22 anaerobic digesters were analysed. 4.8 and 0.53 % of archaeal sequences were simultaneously affiliated to these lineages. A core of 2 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) representing 0.6 to -33.6 % of all archaeal sequences were defined for the Crenarchaeotes and identified to already known but not yet cultivable organisms in almost half of the digesters sampled. For the Thermoplasmata, apparently less abundant with 0.7 to -4.7 % of the archaeal sequences, 3 OTUs were identified. We showed here that Crenarchaeotes coexist with methanogens and are particularly abundant when Arch I lineage (also called WSA2 by Hugenholtz) is dominant in digesters. Moreover, Thermoplasmata were detected when Crenarchaeota were present. Interactions between methanogens, Crenarchaeotea and Thermoplamata were thus discussed.

Members of the uncultured bacterial candidate division WWE1 are implicated in anaerobic digestion of cellulose.

Clones of the WWE1 (Waste Water of Evry 1) candidate division were retrieved during the exploration of the bacterial diversity of an anaerobic mesophilic (35 ± 0.5°C) digester. In order to investigate the metabolic function of WWE1 members, a 16S rRNA gene -based stable isotope probing (SIP) method was used. Eighty-seven percent of 16S r rRNA gene sequences affiliated to WWE1 candidate division were retrieved in a clone library obtained after polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of enriched DNA fraction from anaerobic municipal solid waste samples incubated with (13) C-cellulose, at the end of the incubation (day 63) using a Pla46F-1390R primer pair. The design of a specific WWE1 probe associated with the fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique corroborated the abundant representation of WWE1 members in our (13) C-cellulose incubations. Secondary ion mass spectrometry-in situ hybridization (SIMSISH) using an iodine-labeled oligonucleotide probe combined with high-resolution nanometer-scale SIMS (NanoSIMS) observation confirmed the isotopic enrichment of members of WWE1 candidate division. The (13) C apparent isotopic composition of hybridized WWE1 cells reached the value of about 40% early during the cellulose degradation process, suggesting that these bacteria play a role either in an extracellular cellulose hydrolysis process and/or in the uptake fermentation products.

Bacterial structure and spatiotemporal distribution in a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland.

In this study, bacterial community structure in a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland (HSF-CW) planted with Phragmites australis was investigated using the 16S rRNA cloning-sequencing technique. Two layer depths were considered: the rhizosphere zone (RH) and the deep-layer zone (DL) in different sampling periods. Bacteria-specific primers 008F and 1492R were used to amplify the 16S rRNA genes and construct six clone libraries. A total of 1,284 individual sequences were used to assess the HSF-CW diversity. Phylogenetic analysis of RH and DL clone libraries shows that 41.57 and 42.17 % of the 16S rRNA sequences are affiliated with the Proteobacteria in the RH and the DL, respectively. The remaining major phylogenetic groups are Bacteroidetes, Planctomycetes, and Chloroflexi with 11.78, 9.36, and 7.6 %, respectively, in the RH and 11.38, 6.48, and 7.65 % in the DL, respectively. Minor divisions such as Verrucomicrobia, TM7, Nitrospira, and Gemmatimonadetes represented <6 % of the total sequences, while 14.2 % were unidentified Bacteria. Among the Proteobacteria, the Alphaproteobacteria subclass is represented in both locations, while the Deltaproteobacteria and Gammaproteobacteria subclasses were predominant in the RH and the DL, respectively. Results suggest that Archaea and Bacteria in the HSF-CW are the essential actors in the nitrogen cycle and that the established microbial community is efficient in nitrogen removal from wastewater.

Characterization of rhizosphere prokaryotic diversity in a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland using a PCR cloning-sequencing based approach.

Performance of biological wastewater treatment systems may be related to the composition and activity of microbial populations they contain. However, little information is known regarding microbial community inhabiting these ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to investigate archaeal and bacterial diversity, using cultivation-independent molecular techniques, in a constructed wetland receiving domestic wastewater. Two 16S rRNA gene libraries were constructed using total genomic DNA and amplified by PCR using primers specific for archaeal and bacterial domains. A high microbial diversity was detected. The Proteobacteria phylum is the most abundant and diversified phylogenetic group representing 31.3 % of the OTUs, followed by the Bacteroidetes (14.8 %), Planctomycetales (13.8 %), Actinobacteria (12 %), and Chloroflexi (8.2 %). Sequences affiliated with minor phylogenetic divisions such as the TM7, Nitrospira, OP10, and BRC1 are represented by <6 % of total OTUs. The Archaea domain was represented by the Thaumarchaeota phylum dominated by the Candidatus Nitrososphaera genus.

The structure and spatio-temporal distribution of the Archaea in a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland.

In this study, archaeal community structure and temporal dynamics were monitored, using 16S rRNA clone libraries construction from a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland. Phylogenetic assignation of 1026 16S rRNA gene sequences shows that 96.2% of the total operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were affiliated with Thaumarchaeota, a newly proposed archaeal phylum and 3.7% with unclassified Archaea. Among the total sequences, 42% and 40.2% were affiliated with Candidatus Nitrososphaera and unclassified Nitrosopumilus respectively with more than 99% similarity. Results suggest that several dominant and active nitrifiers may benefit from the micro-aerobic conditions around the reed roots to perform ammonia oxidation. The archaeal diversity detected in the rhizosphere zone is clearly different from that detected in the bottom basin. This engineered habitat revealed the reed root and the water composition effects on the archaeal diversity.

Molecular community analysis of magnesium-rich bittern brine recovered from a Tunisian solar saltern.

The microbial community of a magnesium-rich bittern brine saturated with NaCl (380-400 g/L) from a Tunisian solar saltern was investigated using a molecular approach based on 16S rRNA gene analysis and viability tests. The results revealed the existence of microbial flora. Viability test assessment showed that 46.4% of this flora was viable but not detectable by culturability tests. 16S rRNA genes from 49 bacterial clones and 38 archaeal clones were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed. Eleven operational taxonomic units (OTUs) determined by the DOTUR program with 97% sequence similarity were generated for Bacteria. These OTUs were affiliated with Bacteroidetes and Gammaproteobacteria. The archaeal community composition exhibited more diversity with 38 clones, resulting in 13 OTUs affiliated with the Euryarchaeota phylum. Diversity measurement showed a more diverse archaeal than bacterial community at the saturated pond.

Detection of WWE2-related Lentisphaerae by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and fluorescence in situ hybridization in landfill leachate.

We collected samples of anaerobic landfill leachate from municipal solid waste landfill (Vert-le-Grand, France) and constructed 16S rRNA clone libraries using primers targeting Planctomycetes and relatives (Pla46F and 1390R). Analyses of 16S rRNA gene sequences resulted in the abundant representation of WWE2-related Lentisphaerae, members of the phylum Lentisphaerae, in the clone library (98% of the retrieved sequences). Although the sequences that are phylogenetically affiliated with the cultured isolate Victivallis vadensis were identified (WWE2 subgroup II), the majority of the sequences were affiliated with an uncultured Lentisphaerae lineage (WWE2 subgroup I). We designed oligonucleotides probes targeting the specific 16S rRNA gene regions of those 2 subgroups. Fluorescence in situ hybridization confirmed the abundance of the uncultivated WWE2 subgroup I in our leachate samples.

Novel prokaryotic diversity in sediments of Tunisian multipond solar saltern.

The phylogenetic diversity of a sediment microbial community from two ponds having different salinities, 150-200 g/l (M2) and 250-300 g/l (TS38), of an Sfax (Tunisia) solar saltern, was investigated using 16S rRNA clone libraries. The 16S rRNA genes from 135 bacterial clones and 105 archaeal clones were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed. 32 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were generated for Bacteria and 64 for Archaea. The bacterial community in M2 sediment was affiliated only with Bacteroidetes, while that in TS38 sediment was dominated by clones affiliated with Bacteroidetes, (gamma, alpha, delta) Proteobacteria and unclassified bacteria; these represented 56.52, 26.08, 4.34, 4.34 and 8.7% of the OTUs, respectively. In the M2 and TS38 sediments, 44.44 and 43.47% of the bacterial OTUs, respectively, were novel. All archaeal sequences fell into the Euryarchaeota phylum. In both sediments, 38.46 and 72.55% of the OTUs had less than 97% 16S rRNA sequence identity, representing novel OTUs. Two sequences, retrieved from TS38 sediment, were found to be affiliated with the candidate division MSBL-1 defining two OTUs. The sediment phylogenetic study revealed the presence of a highly diverse microbial population in highly salty media.

Molecular analyses of the microbial community composition of an anoxic basin of a municipal wastewater treatment plant reveal a novel lineage of proteobacteria.

A culture-independent molecular phylogenetic approach was used to study prokaryotic diversity in an anoxic activated sludge from a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Two 16S rRNA gene libraries were constructed using total genomic DNA and amplified by polymerase chain reaction using primers specific for archaeal or bacterial domains. Phylogenetic analysis of 132 and 249 almost full-length 16S rRNA genes for Archaea and Bacteria, respectively, was done using the ARB software package. Phylogenetic groups affiliated with the Archaea belong to Euryarchaeota (93.8% of the operational taxonomic units [OTUs]) and Crenarchaeota (6.2% of the OTUs). Within the bacterial library, 84.8% of the OTUs represent novel putative phylotypes never described before and affiliated with ten divisions. The Proteobacteria phylum is the most abundant and diversified phylogenetic group representing 60.4% of the OTUs, followed by Bacteroidetes (22.1%) and gram-positives (6.1%). Interestingly, we detected a novel Proteobacteria monophyletic group distinct from the five known subclasses, which we named New Lineage of Proteobacteria (NLP) lineage, and it is composed of eight clones representing 4.6% of the Proteobacteria. A new 16S rRNA-targeted hybridization probe was designed and fluorescent in situ hybridization analyses shows representatives of NLP as cocci-shaped microorganisms. The Chloroflexi, Acidobacterium, and Nitrospira phyla and TM7 candidate division are each represented by ≤3% of clone sequences. A comprehensive set of eight 16S and 23S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes was used to quantify these major groups by dot blot hybridization within 12 samples. The Proteobacteria accounted for 82.5 ± 4.9%, representing the most abundant phyla. The Bacteroidetes and Planctomycetales groups accounted for 4.9 ± 1.3% and 4 ± 1.7%, respectively. Firmicutes and Actinobacteria together accounted for only 1.9 ± 0.5%. The set of probes covers 93.4 ± 14% of the total bacterial population rRNA within the anoxic basin.

Microbial community of salt crystals processed from Mediterranean seawater based on 16S rRNA analysis.

Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA was used to investigate for the first time the structure of the microbial community that inhabits salt crystals retrieved from the bottom of a solar saltern, located in the coastal area of the Mediterranean Sea (Sfax, Tunisia). This community lives in an extremely salty environment of 250-310 g/L total dissolved salt. A total of 78 bacterial 16S rRNA clone sequences making up to 21 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), determined by the DOTUR program to 97% sequence similarity, was analyzed. These OTUs were affiliated to Bacteroidetes (71.4% of OTUs), and gamma-Proteobacteria and alpha-Proteobacteria (equally represented by 14.2% of the OTUs observed). The archaeal community composition appeared more diverse with 68 clones, resulting in 44 OTUs, all affiliated with the Euryarchaeota phylum. Of the bacterial and archaeal clones showing <97% 16S rRNA sequence identity with sequences in public databases, 47.6% and 84.1% respectively were novel clones. Both rarefaction curves and diversity measurements (Simpson, Shannon-Weaver, Chao) showed a more diverse archaeal than bacterial community at the Tunisian solar saltern pond. The analysis of an increasing clone's number may reveal additional local diversity.

Isolation and characterization of moderately halophilic bacteria from Tunisian solar saltern.

Bacterial screenings from solar saltern in Sfax (Tunisia) lead to the isolation of 40 moderately halophilic bacteria which were able to grow optimally in media with 5-15% of salt. These isolates were phylogenetically characterized using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Two groups were identified including 36 strains of Gamma-Proteobacteria (90%) and 4 strains of Firmicutes (10%). The Gamma-Proteobacteria group consisted of several subgroups of the Halomonadaceae (52.5%), the Vibrionaceae (15%), the Alteromonadaceae (10%), the Idiomarinaceae (7.5%), and the Alcanivoracaceae (5%). Moreover, three novel species: 183ZD08, 191ZA02, and 191ZA09 were found, show <97% sequence similarity of the 16S rRNA sequences while compared to previously published cultivated species. Most of these strains (70%) were able to produce hydrolases: amylases, proteases, phosphatases, and DNAases. Over the isolates, 60% produced phosphatases, 15.0% proteases, 12.5% amylases and DNAases equally. This study showed that the solar saltern of Sfax is an optimal environment for halophilic bacterial growth, where diverse viable bacterial communities are available and may have many industrial applications.

Broad-range PCR, cloning and sequencing of the full 16S rRNA gene for detection of bacterial DNA in synovial fluid samples of Tunisian patients with reactive and undifferentiated arthritis.

INTRODUCTION: Broad-range rDNA PCR provides an alternative, cultivation-independent approach for identifying bacterial DNA in reactive and other form of arthritis. The aim of this study was to use broad-range rDNA PCR targeting the 16S rRNA gene in patients with reactive and other forms of arthritis and to screen for the presence of DNA from any given bacterial species in synovial fluid (SF) samples. METHODS: We examined the SF samples from a total of 27 patients consisting of patients with reactive arthritis (ReA) (n = 5), undifferentiated arthritis (UA) (n = 9), rheumatoid arthritis (n = 7), and osteoarthritis (n = 6) of which the latter two were used as controls. Using broad-range bacterial PCR amplifying a 1400 bp fragment from the 16S rRNA gene, we identified and sequenced at least 24 clones from each SF sample. To identify the corresponding bacteria, DNA sequences were compared to the EMBL (European Molecular Biology Laboratory) database. RESULTS: Bacterial DNA was identified in 20 of the 27 SF samples (74, 10%). Analysis of a large number of sequences revealed the presence of DNA from more than one single bacterial species in the SF of all patients studied. The nearly complete sequences of the 1400 bp were obtained for most of the detected species. DNA of bacterial species including Shigella species, Escherichia species, and other coli-form bacteria as well as opportunistic pathogens such as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and Achromobacter xylosoxidans were shared in all arthritis patients. Among pathogens described to trigger ReA, DNA from Shigella sonnei was found in ReA and UA patients. We also detected DNA from rarely occurring human pathogens such as Aranicola species and Pantoea ananatis. We also found DNA from bacteria so far not described in human infections such as Bacillus niacini, Paenibacillus humicus, Diaphorobacter species and uncultured bacterium genera incertae sedis OP10. CONCLUSIONS: Broad-range PCR followed by cloning and sequencing the entire 16S rDNA, allowed the identification of the bacterial DNA environment in the SF samples of arthritic patients. We found a wide spectrum of bacteria including those known to be involved in ReA and others not previously associated with arthritis.

Towards the definition of a core of microorganisms involved in anaerobic digestion of sludge.

The microbial consortium involved in anaerobic digestion has not yet been precisely characterized and this process remains a 'black box' with limited efficiency. In this study, seven anaerobic sludge digesters were selected based on technology, type of sludge, process and water quality. The prokaryotic community of these digesters was examined by constructing and analysing a total of 9890 16S rRNA gene clones. Libraries were constructed using primers specific for the Bacteria and Archaea domains for each digester, respectively. After phylogenetic affiliation, the libraries were compared using statistical tools to determine the similarities or differences among the seven digesters. Results show that the prokaryotic community of an anaerobic digester is composed of phylotypes commonly found in all anaerobic digesters sampled and also of specific phylotypes. The Archaea community is represented by an equilibrium among a restricted number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs). These OTUs are affiliated with Methanosarcinales, Methanomicrobiales and Arc I phylogenetic groups. Statistical analysis revealed that the Bacteria community can be described as a three component model: one-third making up a core group of phylotypes common to most of the digesters, one-third are phylotypes shared among a few digesters and another one-third are specific phylotypes. The core group is composed of only six OTUs affiliated with Chloroflexi, Betaproteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Synergistetes. Its role in anaerobic degradation appears critical to investigate. This comparison of anaerobic digester populations is a first step towards a future understanding of the relationship among biodiversity, operating conditions and digester efficiency.

Insights into networks of functional microbes catalysing methanization of cellulose under mesophilic conditions.

DNA-SIP (stable isotope probing) was conducted on anaerobic municipal solid waste samples incubated with (13)C-cellulose, (13)C-glucose and (13)C-acetate under mesophilic conditions. A total of 567 full-length bacterial and 448 1100-bp-length archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences were analysed. In the clone libraries derived from 'heavy' DNA fractions, the most abundant sequences were affiliated with the phyla Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, the gamma-subclass of Proteobacteria and methanogenic orders Methanomicrobiales and Methanosarcinales. Sequences related to the genus Acetivibrio (phylum Firmicutes) were recovered only in the 'heavy' DNA fraction derived from the (13)C-cellulose incubation. An oligonucleotide probe (UCL284) targeting specifically Acetivibrio was designed and used for fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) experiments. Interestingly, hybridization of the probe was detected in microorganisms aggregated around cellulose fibres, strengthening the conclusion that these microorganisms were major cellulose degraders. Sequences related to genus Clostridium (phylum Firmicutes) and to the family Porphyromonadaceae (phylum Bacteroidetes) were retrieved in large numbers from the 'heavy' DNA library of (13)C-Glucose incubation, suggesting their involvement in saccharide fermentation. Design and hybridization of specific FISH-probes confirmed the abundant representation of Clostridium (CLO401, CLO1248) and Porphyromonadaceae (BAC1040), which were mostly observed in the planktonic phase. Surprisingly, in the (13)C-acetate experiment, the 'heavy' DNA archaeal library was dominated by sequences related to the strictly hydrogenotrophic methanogenic genus Methanoculleus. One single operational taxonomic unit containing 70 sequences, affiliated to the gamma-subclass of Proteobacteria, was retrieved in the corresponding bacterial library. FISH observations with a newly designed specific probe (UGA64) confirmed the dominance of this bacterial group. Our results show that combination of DNA-SIP and FISH applied with a series of functionally connected substrates can shed light on the networks of uncultured microbes catalysing the methanization of the most abundant chemical renewable energy source on Earth.

Molecular diversity analysis and bacterial population dynamics of an adapted seawater microbiota during the degradation of Tunisian zarzatine oil.

The indigenous microbiota of polluted coastal seawater in Tunisia was enriched by increasing the concentration of zarzatine crude oil. The resulting adapted microbiota was incubated with zarzatine crude oil as the only carbon and energy source. Crude oil biodegradation capacity and bacterial population dynamics of the microbiota were evaluated every week for 28 days (day 7, day 14, day 21, and day 28). Results show that the percentage of petroleum degradation was 23.9, 32.1, 65.3, and 77.8%, respectively. At day 28, non-aromatic and aromatic hydrocarbon degradation rates reached 92.6 and 68.7%, respectively. Bacterial composition of the adapted microflora was analysed by 16S rRNA gene cloning and sequencing, using total genomic DNA extracted from the adapted microflora at days 0, 7, 14, 21, and 28. Five clone libraries were constructed and a total of 430 sequences were generated and grouped into OTUs using the ARB software package. Phylogenetic analysis of the adapted microbiota shows the presence of four phylogenetic groups: Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes. Diversity indices show a clear decrease in bacterial diversity of the adapted microflora according to the incubation time. The Proteobacteria are the most predominant (>80%) at day 7, day 14 and day 21 but not at day 28 for which the microbiota was reduced to only one OTU affiliated with the genus Kocuria of the Actinobacteria. This study shows that the degradation of zarzatine crude oil components depends on the activity of a specialized and dynamic seawater consortium composed of different phylogenetic taxa depending on the substrate complexity.