Spatial variability in herbaceous plant phenology is mostly explained by variability in temperature but also by photoperiod and functional traits.

Whereas temporal variability of plant phenology in response to climate change has already been well studied, the spatial variability of phenology is not well understood. Given that phenological shifts may affect biotic interactions, there is a need to investigate how the variability in environmental factors relates to the spatial variability in herbaceous species' phenology by at the same time considering their functional traits to predict their general and species-specific responses to future climate change. In this project, we analysed phenology records of 148 herbaceous species, which were observed for a single year by the PhenObs network in 15 botanical gardens. For each species, we characterised the spatial variability in six different phenological stages across gardens. We used boosted regression trees to link these variabilities in phenology to the variability in environmental parameters (temperature, latitude and local habitat conditions) as well as species traits (seed mass, vegetative height, specific leaf area and temporal niche) hypothesised to be related to phenology variability. We found that spatial variability in the phenology of herbaceous species was mainly driven by the variability in temperature but also photoperiod was an important driving factor for some phenological stages. In addition, we found that early-flowering and less competitive species characterised by small specific leaf area and vegetative height were more variable in their phenology. Our findings contribute to the field of phenology by showing that besides temperature, photoperiod and functional traits are important to be included when spatial variability of herbaceous species is investigated.

Species composition of root-associated mycobiome of ruderal invasive Anthemis cotula L. varies with elevation in Kashmir Himalaya / La composición de especies del micobioma asociado a las raíces de la invasora ruderal Anthemis cotula L. varía con la elevación en Cachemira Himalaya

Investigating the microbial communities associated with invasive plant species can provide insights into how these species establish and thrive in new environments. Here, we explored the fungal species associated with the roots of the invasive species Anthemis cotula L. at 12 sites with varying elevations in the Kashmir Himalaya. Illumina MiSeq platform was used to identify the species composition, diversity, and guild structure of these root-associated fungi. The study found a total of 706 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) belonging to 8 phyla, 20 classes, 53 orders, 109 families, and 160 genera associated with roots of A. cotula, with the most common genus being Funneliformis. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) constituted the largest guild at higher elevations. The study also revealed that out of the 12 OTUs comprising the core mycobiome, 4 OTUs constituted the stable component while the remaining 8 OTUs comprised the dynamic component. While α-diversity did not vary across sites, significant variation was noted in β-diversity. The study confirmed the facilitative role of the microbiome through a greenhouse trial in which a significant effect of soil microbiome on height, shoot biomass, root biomass, number of flower heads, and internal CO2 concentration of the host plant was observed. The study indicates that diverse fungal mutualists get associated with this invasive alien species even in nutrient-rich ruderal habitats and may be contributing to its spread into higher elevations. This study highlights the importance of understanding the role of root-associated fungi in invasion dynamics and the potential use of mycobiome management strategies to control invasive species.(AU)

Integrating human footprint with ensemble modelling identifies priority habitats for conservation: a case study in the distributional range of Arnebia euchroma, a vulnerable species.

Climate change-driven rapid alteration of ecosystems globally is further complicated by growing anthropogenic pressures, especially in the ecologically sensitive mountainous regions. However, these two major drivers of change have largely been considered separately in species distribution models, thus compromising their reliability. Here, we integrated ensemble modelling with the human pressure index for predicting distribution and mapping priority regions across a whole range of occurrences for vulnerable species, Arnebia euchroma. Our results identified 3.08% of the study area as 'highly suitable', 2.45% as 'moderately suitable', and 94.45% as 'not suitable' or 'least suitable'. Compared to current climatic conditions, future RCP scenarios of 2050 and 2070 showed a significant loss in habitat suitability and a slight shift in the distribution pattern of the target species. By excluding the high-pressure areas of the human footprint from the predicted suitable habitats, we were able to identify the unique areas (70% of the predicted suitable area) that need special attention for conservation and restoration. Such models, if well implemented, may play a pivotal role in achieving the effective targets under the aegis of the current UN decade on ecological restoration (2021-2030) in accordance with SDG 15.4.

Calcium Oxalate Crystals, the Plant 'Gemstones': Insights into Their Synthesis and Physiological Implications in Plants.

From simple algal forms to the most advanced angiosperms, calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals (CRs) occur in the majority of taxonomic groups of photosynthetic organisms. Various studies have demonstrated that this biomineralization is not a simple or random event but a genetically regulated coordination between calcium uptake, oxalate (OX) synthesis and, sometimes, environmental stresses. Certainly, the occurrence of CaOx CRs is old; however, questions related to their genesis, biosynthesis, significance and genetics exhibit robust evolution. Moreover, their speculated roles in bulk calcium regulation, heavy metal/OX detoxification, light reflectance and photosynthesis, and protection against grazing and herbivory, besides other characteristics, are gaining much interest. Thus, it is imperative to understand their synthesis and regulation in relation to the ascribed key functions to reconstruct future perspectives in harnessing their potential to achieve nutritious and pest-resistant crops amid anticipated global climatic perturbations. This review critically addresses the basic and evolving concepts of the origin (and recycling), synthesis, significance, regulation and fate vis-à-vis various functional aspects of CaOx CRs in plants (and soil). Overall, insights and conceptual future directions present them as potential biominerals to address future climate-driven issues.

Species composition of root-associated mycobiome of ruderal invasive Anthemis cotula L. varies with elevation in Kashmir Himalaya.

Investigating the microbial communities associated with invasive plant species can provide insights into how these species establish and thrive in new environments. Here, we explored the fungal species associated with the roots of the invasive species Anthemis cotula L. at 12 sites with varying elevations in the Kashmir Himalaya. Illumina MiSeq platform was used to identify the species composition, diversity, and guild structure of these root-associated fungi. The study found a total of 706 fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) belonging to 8 phyla, 20 classes, 53 orders, 109 families, and 160 genera associated with roots of A. cotula, with the most common genus being Funneliformis. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) constituted the largest guild at higher elevations. The study also revealed that out of the 12 OTUs comprising the core mycobiome, 4 OTUs constituted the stable component while the remaining 8 OTUs comprised the dynamic component. While α-diversity did not vary across sites, significant variation was noted in ß-diversity. The study confirmed the facilitative role of the microbiome through a greenhouse trial in which a significant effect of soil microbiome on height, shoot biomass, root biomass, number of flower heads, and internal CO2 concentration of the host plant was observed. The study indicates that diverse fungal mutualists get associated with this invasive alien species even in nutrient-rich ruderal habitats and may be contributing to its spread into higher elevations. This study highlights the importance of understanding the role of root-associated fungi in invasion dynamics and the potential use of mycobiome management strategies to control invasive species.

Risk analysis of fast spreading species in a Kashmir Himalayan National Park (Dachigam) for better monitoring and management.

Huge economic costs and ecological impacts of invasive alien species (IAS) in the protected areas (PAs) worldwide make their timely prediction and potential risk assessment of central importance for effective management. While the preborder weed risk assessment framework has been extensively evaluated and implemented, the postborder species risk assessment framework has not been subjected to the same degree of scrutiny. Here we used a rather more realistic modified version of the Australian Weed Risk framework (AWRM) for Dachigam National Park (DNP) in Kashmir Himalaya against 84 plant species, including 55 alien species and 29 fast spreading native species, for risk analysis. We found two very high-risk species, three high-risk species, 10 medium-risk species, 29 low-risk species, and 40 negligible-risk species in the DNP. The containment scores accordingly ranged from 14.4 to 293.5 comprising of 27 species that can be contained with very high feasibility, 23 species with high feasibility, 14 species with medium feasibility, and 12 species which cannot be contained easily thereby having low feasibility of containment (FOC) score. However, eight species which have a negligible FOC score are difficult to contain within their infestation sites. Our results demonstrate the merit of the AWRM with a caution that the necessary region-specific modifications may help in its better implementation. Overall, these results provide quite a promising tool in the hands of protected area managers to timely and effectively deal with the problem of plant invasions.

Acquisition and evolution of enhanced mutualism-an underappreciated mechanism for invasive success?

Soil biota can determine plant invasiveness, yet biogeographical comparisons of microbial community composition and function across ranges are rare. We compared interactions between Conyza canadensis, a global plant invader, and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in 17 plant populations in each native and non-native range spanning similar climate and soil fertility gradients. We then grew seedlings in the greenhouse inoculated with AM fungi from the native range. In the field, Conyza plants were larger, more fecund, and associated with a richer community of more closely related AM fungal taxa in the non-native range. Fungal taxa that were more abundant in the non-native range also correlated positively with plant biomass, whereas taxa that were more abundant in the native range appeared parasitic. These patterns persisted when populations from both ranges were grown together in a greenhouse; non-native populations cultured a richer and more diverse AM fungal community and selected AM fungi that appeared to be more mutualistic. Our results provide experimental support for evolution toward enhanced mutualism in non-native ranges. Such novel relationships and the rapid evolution of mutualisms may contribute to the disproportionate abundance and impact of some non-native plant species.

Functional traits influence patterns in vegetative and reproductive plant phenology - a multi-botanical garden study.

Phenology has emerged as key indicator of the biological impacts of climate change, yet the role of functional traits constraining variation in herbaceous species' phenology has received little attention. Botanical gardens are ideal places in which to investigate large numbers of species growing under common climate conditions. We ask whether interspecific variation in plant phenology is influenced by differences in functional traits. We recorded onset, end, duration and intensity of initial growth, leafing out, leaf senescence, flowering and fruiting for 212 species across five botanical gardens in Germany. We measured functional traits, including plant height, absolute and specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, leaf carbon and nitrogen content and seed mass and accounted for species' relatedness. Closely related species showed greater similarities in timing of phenological events than expected by chance, but species' traits had a high degree of explanatory power, pointing to paramount importance of species' life-history strategies. Taller plants showed later timing of initial growth, and flowered, fruited and underwent leaf senescence later. Large-leaved species had shorter flowering and fruiting durations. Taller, large-leaved species differ in their phenology and are more competitive than smaller, small-leaved species. We assume climate warming will change plant communities' competitive hierarchies with consequences for biodiversity.

Anthropogenic activities and geographic locations regulate microbial diversity, community assembly and species sorting in Canadian and Indian freshwater lakes.

Freshwater lakes are important reservoirs and sources of drinking water globally. However, the microbiota, which supports the functionality of these ecosystems is threatened by the influx of nutrients, heavy metals and other toxic chemical substances from anthropogenic activities. The influence of these factors on the diversity, assembly mechanisms and co-occurrence patterns of bacterial communities in freshwater lakes is not clearly understood. Hence, samples were collected from six different impacted lakes in Canada and India and examined by 454-pyrosequencing technology. The trophic status of these lakes was determined using specific chemical parameters. Our results revealed that bacterial diversity and community composition was altered by both the lake water chemistry and geographic distance. Anthropogenic activities pervasively influenced species distribution. Dispersal limitation (32.3%), homogenous selection (31.8%) and drift (20%) accounted for the largest proportions of the bacterial community assembly mechanisms. Homogenous selection increased in lakes with higher nutrient concentration, while stochasticity reduced. Community functional profiles revealed that deterministic processes dominated the assembly mechanisms of phylotypes with higher potential for biodegradation, while stochasticity dominated the assembly of phylotypes with potential for antimicrobial resistance. Bacteroidota (44%) and Proteobacteria (34%) were the most abundant phyla. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that complexity increased in more impacted lakes, while competition and the nature of anthropogenic activity contributed to species sorting. Overall, this study demonstrates that bacterial community changes in freshwater lakes are linked to anthropogenic activities, with corresponding consequences on the distribution of phylotypes of environmental and human health interest.

Risk assessment and management framework for rapidly spreading species in a Kashmir Himalayan Ramsar site.

In view of huge ecological impacts and exorbitantly high economic costs of biological invasions, the risk assessment for timely prediction of potential invaders and their effective management assumes central importance, yet having been little addressed. Hence, we did the risk analysis of 39 plant species, including both alien and fast-spreading native species, in Hokera wetland, an important Ramsar site in Kashmir Himalaya, using the post-border Australian Weed Risk Management (AWRM) framework. Based on the AWRM scores, we listed these species into different categories, such as alert, destroy infestation, contain spread, manage weed, manage sites and monitor, with management implications. Out of the eight decisions created for Hokera wetland, alien Alternanthera philoxeroides was identified as 'alert species', while Typha angustifolia, Typha latifolia, Phragmites australis, Sparganium ramosum and Myriophyllum aquaticum were placed under the 'manage weed' category of the management priorities. To check the predictability and reliability of the AWRM scheme, we developed the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve that yielded a positive diagonal value of above 0.5, with 88.6% and 83.1% area under the curve for comparative weed risk (CWR) score and the feasibility of coordinated control (FOC) score, respectively. The outcomes of the ROC analysis were compared with the results of the WRM evaluation of other regions across the globe. Our results indicate that the risk assessment using the AWRM model is quite efficient at discriminating and flagging the most troublesome plant species and offsetting their impacts on native biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in wetland ecosystems. Given the growing threat of biological invasions in the protected areas, we recommend an integrated and strategic approach, well informed by the data on the species biology and ecology, in the form of the AWRM management system to effectively deal with the alarmingly spreading species.

Silicon supplementation improves early blight resistance in Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. by modulating the expression of defense-related genes and antioxidant enzymes.

Early blight is the most devastating disease in tomato which causes huge yield losses across the globe. Hence, development of specific, efficient and ecofriendly tools are required to increase the disease resistance in tomato plants. Here, we systematically investigate the defensive role and priming effect of silicon (Si) in tomato plants under control and infected conditions. Based on the results, Si-treated tomato plants showed improved resistance to Alternaria solani as there was delay in symptoms and reduced disease severity than non-Si-treated plants. To further examine the Si-mediated molecular priming in tomato plants, expression profiling of defense-related genes like PR1, PR2, WRKYII, PR3, LOXD and JERF3 was studied in control, Si-supplemented, A. solani-inoculated and Si + A. solani-inoculated plants. Interestingly, Si significantly increased the expression of jasmonic acid (JA) marker genes (PR3, LOXD and JERF3) than salicylic acid (SA) marker genes (PR1, PR2 and WRKYII). However, Si + A. solani-inoculated plants showed higher expression levels of defence genes except WRKYII than A. solani-inoculated or Si-treated plants. Furthermore, pre-supplementation of Si to A. solani-infected tomato plants showed increased activity of antioxidant enzymes viz. superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR) and peroxidase (POD) than control, Si-treated and A. solani-inoculated plants. Altogether, present study highlights the defensive role of Si in tomato plants in response to A. solani by increasing not only the transcript levels of defense signature genes, but also the activity of antioxidant enzymes.

Ecological restoration of habitats invaded by Leucanthemum vulgare that alters key ecosystem functions.

Precise assessment of the impacts of invasive alien species (IAS) on ecosystem structure and functions is paramount for implementing appropriate management and restoration strategies. Here we investigated the impacts of Leucanthemum vulgare (ox-eye daisy), an aggressive invader in Kashmir Himalaya, on species diversity and primary productivity. We also evaluated bunch of strategies for the ecological restoration of the habitats invaded by this species. We found that uninvaded plots harbored on an average of 6.11 (±2.92) more species per 1m2 of quadrat than invaded plots. At multivariate scale, the ordination (nMDS) and ANOSIM exhibited significant differences between invaded and uninvaded plots with R = 0.7889 and p < 0.001. The decrease in diversity indices in invaded as compared to uninvaded plots was associated with more productive plant communities due to Leucanthemum invasion. Higher altitude Gulmarg site was more affected by Leucanthemum invasion than lower altitude Drung site. We tested different approaches for restoration and management of invaded habitats that include herbicide treatment at seedling stage, herbicide treatment before and after flowering stage, mowing and herbicide treatment together, joint mowing, digging and herbicide treatment and Leucanthemum uprooting. Among these treatments, uprooting and combined digging, mowing and herbicide treatment proved to be most effective in controlling Leucanthemum invasion. The implications of these results for effective management of ecologically sensitive and socio-culturally important landscapes are discussed.

Next Generation High Throughput Sequencing to Assess Microbial Communities: An Application Based on Water Quality.

Traditional techniques to identify different contaminants (biological or chemical) in the waters are slow, laborious, and can require specialized expertise. Hence, the rapid determination of water quality using more sensitive and reliable metagenomic based approaches attains special importance. Metagenomics deals with the study of genetic material that is recovered from microbial communities present in environmental samples. In traditional techniques cultivation-based methodologies were used to describe the diversity of microorganisms in environmental samples. It has failed to function as a robust marker because of limited taxonomic and phylogenetic implications. In this backdrop, high-throughput DNA sequencing approaches have proven very powerful in microbial source tracking because of investigating the full variety of genome-based analysis such as microbial genetic diversity and population structure played by them. Next generation sequencing technologies can reveal a greater proportion of microbial communities that have not been reported earlier by traditional techniques. The present review highlights the shift from traditional techniques for the basic study of community composition to next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms and their potential applications to the biomonitoring of water quality in relation to human health.

Differential Bioaccumulation of Select Heavy Metals from Wastewater by Lemna minor.

The capacity of Lemna minor to remediate toxic heavy metals from wastewater is reasonably well documented. In view of the pivotal role of this species in the environmental clean-up, here we evaluated the bioaccumulation potential of L. minor for cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) through a controlled experiment. L. minor tolerated the metals Cd, Ni, and Pb up to 0.5, 5, and 8 mg/L, respectively, and beyond these concentrations the toxicity symptoms appeared. Bio-concentration factor varied at different concentrations of heavy metals tested. Overall, L. minor showed good phytoremediation potential for all the three tested heavy metals (Cd, Ni, and Pb), though in relative terms it was more effective in extracting Ni and Cd, as compared to Pb, both in single and mixed concentrations. In view of the growing pollution in Kashmir Himalayan aquatic habitats the phytoremediation by invasive species such as L. minor promises to be one of the best choices than other native plants for cleaning up of polluted soils/water because of its fast growth rate, high abundance, easy handling, and wide distribution in Kashmir Himalayan aquatic ecosystems.

Phenotypic Variability and Genetic Diversity of Phragmites australis in Quebec and Kashmir Reveal Contrasting Population Structure.

The origin of differences in traits influencing competitive success between invasive and native wild populations of alien species is subject of debate. Herbarium-based information sources from 2005 onwards about nativity and distributional range of Phragmites australis were used to survey putative native populations of the species in Quebec, and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) PCR-RFLP analyses identified only one native population, whereas the same analyses revealed that the Kashmir populations are invasive. We compared the native population of P. australis in Quebec (QN), ten populations invasive to Quebec (QE), and five populations invasive in Kashmir, India (KE) using morphometric traits. Using nine cpDNA microsatellite loci, we also compared nine KE populations, ten QE populations, and the QN population. Phenotypic variation was observed among and within populations. Only dry mass of flowers varied across regions. Characterization of morphotypes defined three distinct haplotypes. A bimodal distribution of stem diameter (SD), internode length (IL), leaf length (LL), and leaf width (LW) suggests that a major gene may control growth traits or occurrence of co-selection. High genetic differentiation was observed between populations (RST = 0.353) and haplotypes (RST = 0.133 to 0.418), indicating limited gene flow and probable local adaptation. Principal coordinates analysis and the neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree clearly distinguished the three haplotypes. Among-populations phenotypic difference (PST) was lower than overall RST for plant height, SD, and fresh and dry mass of flowers and seeds, whereas PST estimates for LL and LW exceeded among-populations RST, suggesting divergent selection, while local adaptation might have occurred in IL, LL, and flower masses. Genetic drift probably influenced among-populations IL differences.

A Wild Fomes fomentarius for Biomediation of One Pot Synthesis of Titanium Oxide and Silver Nanoparticles for Antibacterial and Anticancer Application.

The present study offers an alternative method for green synthesis of the formation of two types of nanoparticles (NPs). These NPs, titanium oxide and silver NPs (TiO2 and Ag NPs, respectively), were obtained from the amalgamation of intracellular extract of a wild mushroom, Fomes fomentarius, with aqueous solutions of titanium isopropoxide and silver nitrate, respectively. F. fomentarius was identified phenotypically and by 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing (Gene accession no: MK635351). The biosynthesis of TiO2 and Ag NPs was studied and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), diffuse reflectance UV-Visible spectroscopy (DR-UV), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). Success was achieved in obtaining NPs of differing sizes and shapes. The antibacterial and anticancer activity of the NPs was significant with morphological damage being caused by both, although Ag NPs (10-20 nm) were found to have profound effects on bacterial and cancer cells in comparison to TiO2 NPs (100-120 nm). These metal NPs, synthesized using wild mushrooms, hold a great potential in biomedicinedue to an effective enzyme combination, which permits them to modify different chemical compounds to less toxic forms, which is required for ecofriendly and safe biomaterials.

DNA aptamer-based non-faradaic impedance biosensor for detecting E. coli.

Developing a real-time, portable, and inexpensive sensor for pathogenic bacteria is crucial since the conventional detection approaches such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays are high cost, time-consuming, and require an expert operator. Here we present a portable, inexpensive, and convenient impedance-based biosensor using Interdigitated Electrode (IDE) arrays to detect Escherichia coli (E. coli) as a model to demonstrate the feasibility of an impedance-based biosensor. We manipulated the affinity of the IDE array towards E. coli (E. coli BL21 series) by functionalizing the IDEs' surface with an E. coli outer membrane protein (OMP) Ag1 Aptamer. To determine the dominant factors affecting the sensitivity and the performance of the biosensor in detecting E. coli, we investigated the roles of the substrate material used in the fabrication of the IDE, the concentration of the aptamer, and the composition of the carboxy aliphatic thiol mixture used in the pre-treatment of the IDE surface. In the sensing experiments we used an E. coli concentration range of 25-1000 cfu mL-1 and confirmed the binding of the OMP Ag1 Aptamer to the outer membrane protein of the E. coli by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM), Optical Microscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). By tuning the surface chemistry, the IDEs' substrate material, and the concentration of the OMP Ag1 Aptamer, our sensor could detect E. coli with the analytical sensitivity of approximately 1.8 Ohm/cfu and limit of detection of 9 cfu mL-1. We found that the molecular composition of the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) formed on the top of the IDEs before the attachment of the OMP Ag1 Aptamer significantly impacted the sensitivity of the sensor. Notably, with straightforward changes to the molecular recognition elements, this platform device can be used to detect a wide range of other microorganisms and chemicals relevant for environmental monitoring and public health.

Using Fomitopsis pinicola for bioinspired synthesis of titanium dioxide and silver nanoparticles, targeting biomedical applications.

The current study proposes a bio-directed approach for the formation of titanium oxide and silver nanoparticles (TiO2 and Ag NPs), using a wild mushroom, Fomitopsis pinicola, identified by 18S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing (gene accession no. MK635350) and phenotypic examination. NP synthesis was confirmed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), diffuse reflectance UV-visible spectroscopy (DR-UV), and scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM/TEM). Furthermore, the impact of NPs on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and a human colon cancer cell line (HCT) were evaluated by MIC/MBC and MTT assays, respectively, along with structural morphogenesis by different microscopy methods. The results obtained showed that TiO2 and Ag NPs were found to be significantly active, however, slightly enhanced antibacterial and anticancer action was seen with Ag NPs (10-30 nm). Such NPs can be utilized to control and treat infectious diseases and colon cancer and therefore have potential in a range of biomedical applications.

Chalcone synthases (CHSs): the symbolic type III polyketide synthases.

MAIN CONCLUSION: Present review provides a thorough insight on some significant aspects of CHSs over a period of about past three decades with a better outlook for future studies toward comprehending the structural and mechanistic intricacy of this symbolic enzyme. Polyketide synthases (PKSs) form a large family of iteratively acting multifunctional proteins that are involved in the biosynthesis of spectrum of natural products. They exhibit remarkable versatility in the structural configuration and functional organization with an incredible ability to generate different classes of compounds other than the characteristic secondary metabolite constituents. Architecturally, chalcone synthase (CHS) is considered to be the simplest representative of Type III PKSs. The enzyme is pivotal for phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and is also well known for catalyzing the initial step of the flavonoid/isoflavonoid pathway. Being the first Type III enzyme to be discovered, CHS has been subjected to ample investigations which, to a greater extent, have tried to understand its structural complexity and promiscuous functional behavior. In this context, we vehemently tried to collect the fragmented information entirely focussed on this symbolic enzyme from about past three-four decades. The aim of this review is to selectively summarize data on some of the fundamental aspects of CHSs viz, its history and distribution, localization, structure and analogs in non-plant hosts, promoter analyses, and role in defense, with an emphasis on mechanistic studies in different species and vis-à-vis mutation-led changes, and evolutionary significance which has been discussed in detail. The present review gives an insight with a better perspective for the scientific community for future studies devoted towards delimiting the mechanistic and structural basis of polyketide biosynthetic machinery vis-à-vis CHS.

Immuno-impedimetric Biosensor for Onsite Monitoring of Ascospores and Forecasting of Sclerotinia Stem Rot of Canola.

Sclerotinia stem rot, caused by the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is a destructive disease of canola and many other broadleaf crops. The primary inoculum responsible for initiating Sclerotinia epidemics is airborne ascospores released from the apothecia of sclerotia. Timely detection of the presence of airborne ascospores can serve as an early-warning system for forecasting and management of the disease. A major challenge is to develop a portable and automated device which can be deployed onsite to detect and quantify the presence of minute quantities of ascospores in the air and serves as a unit in a network of systems for forecasting of the epidemic. In this communication, we present the development of an impedimetric non-Faradaic biosensor based on anti-S. sclerotiorum polyclonal antibodies as probes to selectively capture the ascospores and sense their binding by an impedance based interdigitated electrode which was found to directly and unambiguously correlate the number of ascospores on sensor surface with the impedance response.