Common and Potential Emerging Foodborne Viruses: A Comprehensive Review.

Human viruses and viruses from animals can cause illnesses in humans after the consumption of contaminated food or water. Contamination may occur during preparation by infected food handlers, during food production because of unsuitably controlled working conditions, or following the consumption of animal-based foods contaminated by a zoonotic virus. This review discussed the recent information available on the general and clinical characteristics of viruses, viral foodborne outbreaks and control strategies to prevent the viral contamination of food products and water. Viruses are responsible for the greatest number of illnesses from outbreaks caused by food, and risk assessment experts regard them as a high food safety priority. This concern is well founded, since a significant increase in viral foodborne outbreaks has occurred over the past 20 years. Norovirus, hepatitis A and E viruses, rotavirus, astrovirus, adenovirus, and sapovirus are the major common viruses associated with water or foodborne illness outbreaks. It is also suspected that many human viruses including Aichi virus, Nipah virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, H5N1 avian influenza viruses, and coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-1, SARS-CoV-2 and MERS-CoV) also have the potential to be transmitted via food products. It is evident that the adoption of strict hygienic food processing measures from farm to table is required to prevent viruses from contaminating our food.

Effects of Pulsed Electric Field Pretreatment on Black Tea Processing and Its Impact on Cold-Brewed Tea.

This study applied pulsed electric fields (PEFs) to accelerate the withering and drying processes during cold-brewed black tea production. PEF pretreatment was administered at 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 kV/cm electric field strengths, combined with varying withering times from 8 to 12 hr. During the 12-hour withering process, the redness value (a*) and total color change (∆E) of PEF-treated leaves significantly increased (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the homogenous redness of tea leaves during fermentation depended on the PEF strength applied. In addition, PEF pretreatment remarkably reduced the drying time, up to a 50% reduction at a 2.0 kV/cm field strength. Additionally, the 2.0 kV/cm PEF-pretreated black tea exhibited a notable 42% increase in theaflavin (TF) content and a 54% increase in thearubigin (TR) content. Sensory evaluation scores were highest for black tea that received PEF pretreatment at 2.0 kV/cm. These findings highlight the significant potential of PEFs in enhancing the efficiency of withering and drying processes while positively impacting the physicochemical and sensory properties of cold-brewed black tea.

Microbial toxins in fermented foods: health implications and analytical techniques for detection.

Recently, demand for fermented foods has increased due to their improved nutritional value, taste, and health-promoting properties. Worldwide consumption of these products is increasing. Fermented foods are generally safe for human consumption. However, some toxins, primarily biogenic amines (putrescine, phenylethylamine, histamine, tyramine, and cadaverine), mycotoxins (fumonisins, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, and trichothecenes), and bacterial toxins (endotoxins, enterotoxins, and emetic toxins) can be produced as a result of using an inappropriate starter culture, processing conditions, and improper storage. These toxins can cause a multitude of foodborne illnesses and can lead to cardiovascular aberration and adverse gastrointestinal symptoms. Analytical techniques are in use for the detection of toxins in fermented foods for monitoring and control purposes. These include culture, chromatographic, immunoassays, and nano sensor-based techniques. These detection techniques can be used during the production process and along the food chain. On an industrial scale, HPLC is widely used for sensitive quantification of toxins in fermented foods. Recently, biosensor and nano sensor-based techniques have gained popularity due to accuracy, time efficiency, and simultaneous detection of multiple toxins. Other strategic methods being investigated for the removal of toxins from fermented foods include the use of specific starter cultures for bio-preservation, aflatoxin-binding, and biogenic amine-degradation agents that may help to appropriately manage the food safety concerns associated with fermented foods.

Formation of furan in baby food products: Identification and technical challenges.

Furan is generally produced during thermal processing of various foods including baked, fried, and roasted food items such as cereal products, coffee, canned, and jarred prepared foods as well as in baby foods. Furan is a toxic and carcinogenic compound to humans and may be a vital hazard to infants and babies. Furan could be formed in foods through thermal degradation of carbohydrates, dissociation of amino acids, and oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. The detection of furan in food products is difficult due to its high volatility and low molecular weight. Headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometer (GC/MS) is generally used for analysis of furan in food samples. The risk assessment of furan can be characterized using margin of exposure approach (MOE). Conventional strategies including cooking in open vessels, reheating of commercially processed foods with stirring, and physical removal using vacuum treatment have remained unsuccessful for the removal of furan due to the complex production mechanisms and possible precursors of furan. The innovative food-processing technologies such as high-pressure processing (HPP), high-pressure thermal sterilization (HPTS), and Ohmic heating have been adapted for the reduction of furan levels in baby foods. But in recent years, only HPP has gained interest due to successful reduction of furan because of its nonthermal mechanism. HPP-treated baby food products are commercially available from different food companies. This review summarizes the mechanism involved in the formation of furan in foods, its toxicity, and identification in infant foods and presents a solution for limiting its formation, occurrence, and retention using novel strategies.

Optimization of phytic acid-crosslinked chitosan microspheres for oral insulin delivery using response surface methodology.

Although oral administration is favorable mode of insulin delivery, it is the most challenging route, owing to poor oral bioavailability. In this study, a chitosan (CS)-based insulin delivery system was developed by ionic crosslinking with phytic acid (PA). CS-PA microspheres were optimized with different crosslinking conditions of CS and PA using response surface methodology to retain insulin during preparation and gastric digestion. Furthermore, the in vitro release profile, morphological structure, cytotoxicity, and intestinal permeability of the optimized microspheres, and its hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats were evaluated. Under optimal conditions, the entrapment efficiency was 97.1%, and 67.0% of insulin was retained in the microspheres after 2 h of gastric digestion followed by a sustained-release in intestinal fluid. Insulin was primarily distributed in the microsphere core with a monodisperse diameter of 663.3 µm. The microspheres increased the permeability of insulin across Caco-2/HT-29 monolayers by 1.6 times with negligible cytotoxicity. The microspheres had a relative pharmacological bioavailability of 10.6% and significantly reduced blood glucose levels with a long-lasting hypoglycemic effect after oral administration in diabetic rats. This study demonstrated that an optimized formulation of a simple ionic crosslinking system using CS and PA could facilitate efficient oral delivery of insulin.

Food Safety During and After the Era of COVID-19 Pandemic.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a clinical syndrome caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020 due to its rapid and extensive spread among many countries through its very contagious nature and its high mortality among the elderly and infirm. Recently, data on the survival of SARS-CoV-2 on contact surfaces has been reported, but there is none on the survival of COVID-19 on food surfaces and packages. The potential survival and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on/via food and packages are discussed based on data available for other respiratory viruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. However, studies are needed to explore its transmission via food and survival on food packaging materials. The implementation of food safety management systems such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) are important to reduce the risk of COVID-19 infection. Cleaning, sanitation, good hygienic practices, and active packaging are also needed from farm to fork.

Attitudes, Anxiety, and Behavioral Practices Regarding COVID-19 among University Students in Jordan: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The COVID-19 pandemic represents a major public health, economic, political, and scientific concern in most countries around the globe where COVID-19 cases and deaths have been confirmed. This study assessed the attitudes, anxiety, and behavioral practices of university students in Jordan regarding COVID-19 during the early period of the infection (March 19-21, 2020) using a validated, self-administered survey questionnaire. Positive attitudes or low-risk practices were given 1 point, whereas negative attitudes or high-risk practices were scored 0. Percentages of the total score were used for categorizing data into negative attitudes or high-risk practices (≤ 60%), moderate attitudes or moderate-risk practices (60.01-80%), and positive attitudes or low-risk practices (> 80%). Generally, the university students displayed positive attitudes and low-risk practices toward preventing COVID-19, with an average score of 81.1% and 84.3%, respectively. Approximately two-thirds (69.1%) of the students showed a positive attitude toward COVID-19 seriousness, concern of contracting the virus, and the appropriate prevention measures, and low-risk practices (67.6%) toward preventing COVID-19 including implementation of social distancing and good hygiene. Female, older, medical, or postgraduate students practiced significantly more (P ≤ 0.05) appropriate hygiene and social distancing behaviors toward COVID-19 than their counterparts of each group. More than two-thirds (69.2%) of the students were anxious that they might become infected with COVID-19. These results are important for health authorities to develop appropriate educational programs and protective health measures including good respiratory etiquette and handwashing practices, to enhance safer lifestyles and prevent COVID-19 transmission.

Knowledge and Information Sources About COVID-19 Among University Students in Jordan: A Cross-Sectional Study.

Background: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has rapidly spread worldwide, and it was officially declared to be a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. Most countries over the entire globe have reported some COVID-19 cases. The current study aimed to assess student knowledge about COVID-19 at different Jordanian universities and determine where they sourced their information. Methods:A cross-sectional study was conducted among 2,083 undergraduate or postgraduate students from different governmental and private universities during the initial stage of the disease in Jordan (March 19-21, 2020) using a validated, structured, self-administered, online questionnaire. The survey was structured to assess their knowledge about viral sources, incubation period, mortality rate, transmission, symptoms and complications as well as the source of information about COVID-19. Results:Overall, 56.5% of the respondents showed good knowledge and almost 40.5% showed moderate knowledge. On the other hand, 3.0% of the participants showed poor knowledge about COVID-19. The average knowledge score of students was 80.1%, which is considered to be within the scale of good knowledge. Both the college of study and educational level significantly (P < 0.05) associated with student knowledge. Students who majored in medical sciences showed the highest mean score of 82.8%, with 69.0% displaying a good knowledge level. Postgraduate students had significantly higher knowledge scores compared to undergraduate students. The majority of students used the internet, social media and mass media as sources of information about COVID-19. Scientific websites and articles were used more commonly by medical and postgraduate students. Conclusions:The COVID-19 pandemic is a major challenge to the health of the world population; therefore, these results assessing students' knowledge provide an important baseline for planning required educational interventions such as contact tracing and self-quarantine. These results may also help public health authorities by engaging communities in implementation of protective health measures, including positive hygienic practices such as hand washing to reduce the risk of COVID-19.

Development of ginseng powder using high hydrostatic pressure treatment combined with UV-TiO2 photocatalysis.

BACKGROUND: Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) powder is in rising demand because powder forms of foods are convenient to handle and are highly preservable. However, ginseng powder (GP) manufactured using the conventional process of air drying and dry milling suffers nutrient destruction and a lack of microbiological safety. The objective of this study was to prepare GP using a novel process comprised of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis (UVTP) as a prewashing step, wet grinding, high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), and freeze-drying treatments. METHODS: The effects of UVTP and HHP treatments on the microbial population, ginsenoside concentration, and physiological characteristics of GP were evaluated. RESULTS: When UVTP for 10 min and HHP at 600 MPa for 5 min were combined, initial 4.95 log CFU/g-fw counts of total aerobes in fresh ginseng were reduced to lower than the detection limit. The levels of 7 major ginsenosides in UVTP-HHP-treated GP were significantly higher than in untreated control samples. Stronger inhibitory effects against inflammatory mediator production and antioxidant activity were observed in UVTP-HHP-treated GP than in untreated samples. There were also no significant differences in CIELAB color values of UVTP-HHP-treated GP compared with untreated control samples. CONCLUSION: Combined processing of UVTP and HHP increased ginsenoside levels and enhanced the microbiological safety and physiological activity of GP.

Inactivation of Salmonella Typhimurium in fresh cherry tomatoes using combined treatment of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis and high hydrostatic pressure.

The antibacterial efficacy of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis pre-washing in a water-assisted system (UVT, 4.5 mW/cm2, 5-15 min) and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP, 300-500 MPa, 1 min at 25 °C) post-package combined treatment was evaluated against Salmonella Typhimurium inoculated onto whole cherry tomato surfaces and compared with chlorine disinfection (200 ppm). An air pump was fitted at the bottom of UVT reactor to create turbulent flow for rotation of fruits for uniform disinfection. UVT-HHP combined treatment at 500 MPa achieved bacterial reduction of more than 5 log via a synergistic effect, compared with chlorine disinfection. Lycopene and total phenolic contents and antioxidant activities were not significantly changed in tomatoes after any treatment. UVT-HHP combined treatment did not affect the surface color but caused softness in tomatoes. UVT pre-washing followed by HHP post-package treatment can be the effective intervention strategy alternative to conventional chlorine disinfection for production of ready-to-eat (RTE) fresh cherry tomatoes.

Efficacy of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis technology for inactivation of Escherichia coli K12 on the surface of blueberries and a model agar matrix and the influence of surface characteristics.

Surface disinfection of fresh blueberries is an important food safety challenge due to the delicate texture and short shelf life of these small fruits. A newly designed water-assisted photocatalytic reactor was developed for disinfection of fruits with a delicate texture and complex surface characteristics. Efficacy of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis was evaluated in comparison with UV alone for inactivation of Escherichia coli K12 (as a surrogate for Escherichia coli O157:H7) inoculated onto the surface of the blueberry skin, calyx, and an experimentally prepared agar matrix that was used as a model matrix. Influence of surface characteristics such as surface hydrophobicity and surface free energy on bacterial adhesion were also investigated. The initial bacterial population on all surfaces was approximately 7.0 log CFU/g. UV-TiO2 photocatalysis (4.5 mW/cm2) for 30 s achieved comparatively higher bacterial reductions of 5.3 log and 4.6 log CFU/g on blueberry skin and agar matrix surfaces, respectively, than 4.5 log and 3.4 log CFU/g reductions for UV alone (6.0 mW/cm2). Total phenolic and total anthocyanin contents of fruits were significantly increased after both UV-TiO2 and UV treatments, compared with water washed control fruits. UV-TiO2 photocatalysis technology is a non-chemical and residue-free method with reduced water usage for surface disinfection of fresh blueberries.

Assessment of microbiological contamination in saengshik products from the Korean market and identification of the irradiation status.

This study investigated the prevalence of microbiological contamination in commercial Saengshik products (samples SP-1 to SP-12) from the Korean market, and identified their irradiation status. SP-2, SP-8, and SP-12 showed less than 3.66 and 1.10 log colony forming units (CFU)/g in total plate and coliforms counts, respectively, while the remaining samples showed more than 4.70 and 2.35 log CFU/g, respectively. Four samples were positive on some of foodborne pathogenic bacteria (Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli O157:H7, and Bacillus cereus). SP-2, SP-8, and SP-12 contained no pathogenic bacteria and were suspected to have been irradiated. They were confirmed as positive using photostimulated luminescence (PSL) analysis. PSL positive results on samples SP-2, SP-8 and SP-12 were finally confirmed by the authentic thermoluminescence (TL) analysis on the basis of TL glow curve shape, intensity, temperature range of TL peak maxima and TL ratio (TL1/TL2).

The Use of Malic and Acetic Acids in Washing Solution to Control Salmonella spp. on Chicken Breast.

Salmonella is a persisting contaminant in poultry products that may pose a potential risk to consumers. Thus, developing decontamination strategies to eliminate or reduce this pathogen in chicken is crucial. The objective of the current study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of malic acid (MA) and acetic acid (AA) or their combination against Salmonella on chicken breast at 4 °C for 10 days. The effect of storage temperature (4 and 21 °C) on Salmonella inactivation was also investigated for up to 21 days. Five serovars of Salmonella were inoculated in a model Mueller-Hinton (MH) broth system to a level of about 7 log10 CFU/mL and the broth was treated with 5 mg/mL of each of MA, AA or their combination. AA was more effective than MA in the model system at 21 °C, where it resulted in total elimination of Salmonella, but MA was more effective in eliminating Salmonella at 4 °C. However, the combined MA and AA solutions were more effective than either MA or AA alone. When applying washing solutions containing 5 mg/mL of either of MA, AA, or their combination to chicken breast inoculated with about 5 log10 CFU/g, the MA+AA washing solution was the most effective. It resulted in complete elimination of Salmonella from chicken breast and rendered a significant reduction in mesophilic aerobic bacteria and lactic acid bacteria numbers. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study indicates that the use of a washing solution containing MA and AA could improve the safety and extend the shelf life of raw chicken by substantially reducing Salmonella and contaminating microflora on the product.

Biosensors for rapid and sensitive detection of Staphylococcus aureus in food.

Foodborne illness outbreaks caused by the consumption of food contaminated with harmful bacteria has drastically increased in the past decades. Therefore, detection of harmful bacteria in the food has become an important factor for the recognition and prevention of problems associated with food safety and public health. Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most commonly isolated foodborne pathogen and it is considered as a major cause of foodborne illnesses worldwide. A number of different methods have been developed for the detection and identification of S. aureus in food samples. However, some of these methods are laborious and time-consuming and are not suitable for on-site applications. Therefore, it is highly important to develop rapid and more approachable detection methods. In the last decade, biosensors have gained popularity as an attractive alternative method and now considered as one of most rapid and on-site applicable methods. An overview of the biosensor based methods used for the detection of S. aureus is presented herein. This review focuses on the state-of-the-art biosensor methods towards the detection and quantification of S. aureus, and discusses the most commonly used biosensor methods based on the transducing mode, such as electrochemical, optical, and mass-based biosensors.

Emergence of Antibiotic Resistance in Listeria monocytogenes Isolated from Food Products: A Comprehensive Review.

Listeria monocytogenes is an opportunistic pathogen that has been involved in several deadly illness outbreaks. Future outbreaks may be more difficult to manage because of the emergence of antibiotic resistance among L. monocytogenes strains isolated from food products. The present review summarizes the available evidence on the emergence of antibiotic resistance among L. monocytogenes strains isolated from food products and the possible ways this resistance has developed. Furthermore, the resistance of food L. monocytogenes isolates to antibiotics currently used in the treatment of human listeriosis such as penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, and gentamicin, has been documented. Acquisition of movable genetic elements is considered the major mechanism of antibiotic resistance development in L. monocytogenes. Efflux pumps have also been linked with resistance of L. monocytogenes to some antibiotics including fluoroquinolones. Some L. monocytogenes strains isolated from food products are intrinsically resistant to several antibiotics. However, factors in food processing chains and environments (from farm to table) including extensive or sub-inhibitory antibiotics use, horizontal gene transfer, exposure to environmental stresses, biofilm formation, and presence of persister cells play crucial roles in the development of antibiotic resistance by L. monocytogenes.

Improved Extraction and Quality Characterization of Water-Soluble Polysaccharide from Gamma-Irradiated Lentinus edodes.

Gamma irradiation was applied to the improved extraction of water-soluble polysaccharides (WSPs) from dried Lentinus edodes. Irradiation provided a dose-dependent increase in extraction yield (0 kGy, 2.01%; 7.5 kGy, 4.03%; 15 kGy, 7.17%) and purity (0 kGy, 78.8%; 7.5 kGy, 83.1%; 15 kGy, 85.6%) of the WSPs from hot-water extraction. The effect of irradiation was evident in the degraded microstructures and reduced molecular weights of the WSPs. However, nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier-transform infrared, and X-ray diffraction spectroscopic analyses provided comparable structures of WSPs from nonirradiated and irradiated samples. UV-visible spectra showed a dose-dependent decline in intensity, but an improvement in thermal properties of the WSPs from the irradiated mushroom samples was observed.

Green Extraction Methods for Polyphenols from Plant Matrices and Their Byproducts: A Review.

Polyphenols as phytochemicals have gained significant importance owing to several associated health benefits with regard to lifestyle diseases and oxidative stress. To date, the development of a single standard method for efficient and rapid extraction of polyphenols from plant matrices has remained a challenge due to the inherent limitations of various conventional extraction methods. The exploitation of polyphenols as bioactive compounds at various commercial levels has motivated scientists to explore more eco-friendly, efficient, and cost-effective extraction techniques, based on a green extraction approach. The current review aims to provide updated technical information about extraction mechanisms, their advantages and disadvantages, and factors affecting efficiencies, and also presents a comparative overview of applications of the following modern green extraction techniques-supercritical fluid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, and pressurized hot water extraction-as alternatives to conventional extraction methods for polyphenol extraction. These techniques are proving to be promising for the extraction of thermolabile phenolic compounds due to their advantages over conventional, time-consuming, and laborious extraction techniques, such as reduced solvent use and time and energy consumption and higher recovery rates with lower operational costs. The growing interest in plant-derived polyphenols prompts continual search for green and economically feasible modern extraction techniques. Modern green extraction techniques represent promising approaches by virtue of overcoming current limitations to the exploitation of polyphenols as bioactive compounds to explore their wide-reaching applications on an industrial scale and in emerging global markets. Future research is needed in order to remove the technical barriers to scale-up the processes for industrial needs by increasing our understanding and improving the design of modern extraction operations.

Inactivation efficiency and mechanism of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis against murine norovirus using a solidified agar matrix.

Human norovirus (HuNoV) is the primary cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. Fresh blueberries are among high risk foods associated with norovirus related outbreaks. Therefore, it is important to assess intervention strategies to reduce the risk of foodborne illness. The disinfection efficiency of decontamination methods is difficult to evaluate for fruits and vegetables due to an inconsistent degree of contamination and irregular surface characteristics. The inactivation efficiency and mechanism of murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1, a surrogate for HuNoV) was studied on an experimentally prepared solidified agar matrix (SAM) to simulate blueberries using different wavelengths (A, B, C) of UV light both with and without TiO2 photocatalysis (TP). MNV-1 was inoculated on exterior and interior of SAM and inactivation efficiencies of different treatments were investigated using a number of assays. Initial inoculum levels of MNV-1 on the SAM surface and interior were 5.2logPFU/mL. UVC with TiO2 (UVC-TP) achieved the highest level of viral reduction for both externally inoculated and internalized MNV-1. Externally inoculated MNV-1 was reduced to non-detectable levels after UVC-TP treatment for 5min while there was still a 0.9 log viral titer after UVC alone. For internalized MNV-1, 3.2 log and 2.7 log reductions were obtained with UVC-TP and UVC alone treatments for 10min, respectively. The Weibull model was applied to describe the inactivation behavior of MNV-1, and the model showed a good fit to the data. An excellent correlation between the steady-state concentration of OH radicals ([OH]ss) and viral inactivation was quantified using a para-chlorobenzoic acid (pCBA) probe compound, suggesting that OH radicals produced in the UV-TP reaction were the major species for MNV-1 inactivation. Transmission electron microscopy images showed that the structure of viral particles was completely disrupted with UVC-TP and UVC alone. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the major capsid protein VP1 was degraded after UVC-TP and UVC alone. Real-time RT-qPCR analysis showed that UVC-TP and UVC alone caused a reduction in the level of viral genomic RNA. Propidium monoazide (PMA) pretreatment RT-qPCR analysis showed that UVC-TP caused damage to the viral capsid protein in addition to viral genomic RNA. UVC both with and without TiO2 was more effective for MNV-1 inactivation than UVB and UVA. Thus, UVC-TP disinfection aimed to reduce levels of food-borne viruses can inactivate viruses present on the surface and internalized in the interior of blueberries.

Worldwide Status of Fresh Fruits Irradiation and Concerns about Quality, Safety, and Consumer Acceptance.

Development of knowledge-based food preservation techniques have been a major focus of researchers in providing safe and nutritious food. Food irradiation is one of the most thoroughly investigated food preservation techniques, which has been shown to be effective and safe through extensive research. This process involves exposing food to ionizing radiations in order to destroy microorganisms or insects that might be present on and/or in the food. In addition, the effects of irradiation on the enzymatic activity and improvement of functional properties in food have also been well established. In the present review, the potential of food irradiation technology to address major problems, such as short shelf life, high-initial microbial loads, insect pest management (quarantine treatment) in supply chain, and safe consumption of fresh fruits was described. With improved hygienic quality, other uses, such as delayed ripening and enhanced physical appearance by irradiation were also discussed. Available data showed that the irradiation of fruits at the optimum dose can be a safe and cost-effective method, resulting in enhanced shelf life and hygienic quality with the least amount of compromise on the various nutritional attributes, whereas the consumer acceptance of irradiated fruits is a matter of providing the proper scientific information.

Physical-, chemical-, and microbiological-based identification of electron beam- and γ-irradiated frozen crushed garlic.

Identification of frozen crushed garlic, commercially available in the Korean market, was performed using four different analytical techniques (three screening and one confirmation). The garlic samples produced in Korea and China were irradiated (electron-beam and γ-rays) at 0, 1, 4, and 7 kGy. Non-irradiated samples showed a relatively moderate population of aerobic bacteria and yeasts/molds around 10(5) CFU/g. Irradiation treatments unequivocally reduced the microbial/fungal populations with dose increments. Microbiological screening through direct epifluorescent filter technique/aerobic plate count (DEFT/APC) method effectively differentiated the non-irradiated and irradiated samples. An electronic nose method positively differentiated the odor patterns of samples based on chemical sensing. However, photostimulated luminescence technique (PSL) exhibited poor sensitivity. Minerals separated from irradiated samples produced thermoluminescence (TL) glow curves in the specific temperature range of 150-250 °C. In conclusion, TL confirmatory analysis gave the most promising results in detecting the irradiation status of garlic samples irrespective of the production origin and type of ionizing radiation treatment.