Global importance of Indigenous Peoples, their lands, and knowledge systems for saving the world's primates from extinction.

Primates, represented by 521 species, are distributed across 91 countries primarily in the Neotropic, Afrotropic, and Indo-Malayan realms. Primates inhabit a wide range of habitats and play critical roles in sustaining healthy ecosystems that benefit human and nonhuman communities. Approximately 68% of primate species are threatened with extinction because of global pressures to convert their habitats for agricultural production and the extraction of natural resources. Here, we review the scientific literature and conduct a spatial analysis to assess the significance of Indigenous Peoples' lands in safeguarding primate biodiversity. We found that Indigenous Peoples' lands account for 30% of the primate range, and 71% of primate species inhabit these lands. As their range on these lands increases, primate species are less likely to be classified as threatened or have declining populations. Safeguarding Indigenous Peoples' lands, languages, and cultures represents our greatest chance to prevent the extinction of the world's primates.

A high-diversity primate community in a mid-elevation flooded forest, the Jungla de Los Monos Community Reserve, Peru.

The Alto Mayo region in the Peruvian department of San Martin has one of the highest levels of deforestation and fragmentation in the country. Historically, San Martin was home to at least 20 primate species, of which at least 14 persist in the Alto Mayo Valley. We surveyed primate populations in the "Jungla de Los Monos", a locally protected remnant of a naturally diverse primate community in one of the last remaining mid-elevation (800 m a.s.l.) seasonally flooded forests in the region. We recorded seven primate species, with a further two species reported to have been extirpated from the area. By far the most common species was Saimiri macrodon. Half of the primate biomass was made up of a single species, Alouatta seniculus, with S. macrodon accounting for another quarter. The endemic Plecturocebus oenanthe was only detected once in forest interior, but was observed in edge and riverine forest, as well as neighboring fragments. The area holds a surprisingly high diversity and density of primates considering its proximity to population centers, thanks primarily to self-imposed hunting bans and logging control by local communities.

Habitat preference in the critically endangered yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda) at La Esperanza, Peru.

Habitat loss is one of the main threats to wildlife. Therefore, knowledge of habitat use and preference is essential for the design of conservation strategies and identification of priority sites for the protection of endangered species. The yellow-tailed woolly monkey (Lagothrix flavicauda Humboldt, 1812), categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, is endemic to montane forests in northern Peru where its habitat is greatly threatened. We assessed how habitat use and preference in L. flavicauda are linked to forest structure and composition. The study took place near La Esperanza, in the Amazonas region, Peru. Our objective was to identify characteristics of habitat most utilized by L. flavicauda to provide information that will be useful for the selection of priority sites for conservation measures. Using presence records collected from May 2013 to February 2014 for one group of L. flavicauda, we classified the study site into three different use zones: low-use, medium-use, and high-use. We assessed forest structure and composition for all use zones using 0.1 ha Gentry vegetation transects. Results show high levels of variation in plant species composition across the three use zones. Plants used as food resources had considerably greater density, dominance, and ecological importance in high-use zones. High-use zones presented similar structure to medium- and low-use zones; thus it remains difficult to assess the influence of forest structure on habitat preference. We recommend focusing conservation efforts on areas with a similar floristic composition to the high-use zones recorded in this study and suggest utilizing key alimentation species for reforestation efforts.

Protected area coverage of threatened vertebrates and ecoregions in Peru: Comparison of communal, private and state reserves.

Protected areas (PAs) are a conservation mainstay and arguably the most effective conservation strategy for species protection. As a 'megadiverse' country, Peru is a priority for conservation actions. Peruvian legislation allows for the creation of state PAs and private/communal PAs. Using publicly available species distribution and protected area data sets we evaluated the coverage of Threatened terrestrial vertebrate species distributions and ecoregions provided by both kinds of PA in Peru. Peru's state PA system covers 217,879 km2 and private/communal PAs cover 16,588 km2. Of the 462 species of Threatened and Data Deficient species we evaluated, 75% had distributions that overlapped with at least one PA but only 53% had ≥10% of their distributions within PAs, with inclusion much reduced at higher coverage targets. Of the species we evaluated, 118 species are only found in national PAs and 29 species only found in private/communal PAs. Of the 17 terrestrial ecoregions found in Peru all are represented in PAs; the national PA system included coverage of 16 and private/communal PAs protect 13. One ecoregion is only protected in private/communal PAs, whereas four are only covered in national PAs. Our results show the important role private/communal PAs can play in the protection of ecological diversity.

Impending extinction crisis of the world's primates: Why primates matter.

Nonhuman primates, our closest biological relatives, play important roles in the livelihoods, cultures, and religions of many societies and offer unique insights into human evolution, biology, behavior, and the threat of emerging diseases. They are an essential component of tropical biodiversity, contributing to forest regeneration and ecosystem health. Current information shows the existence of 504 species in 79 genera distributed in the Neotropics, mainland Africa, Madagascar, and Asia. Alarmingly, ~60% of primate species are now threatened with extinction and ~75% have declining populations. This situation is the result of escalating anthropogenic pressures on primates and their habitats-mainly global and local market demands, leading to extensive habitat loss through the expansion of industrial agriculture, large-scale cattle ranching, logging, oil and gas drilling, mining, dam building, and the construction of new road networks in primate range regions. Other important drivers are increased bushmeat hunting and the illegal trade of primates as pets and primate body parts, along with emerging threats, such as climate change and anthroponotic diseases. Often, these pressures act in synergy, exacerbating primate population declines. Given that primate range regions overlap extensively with a large, and rapidly growing, human population characterized by high levels of poverty, global attention is needed immediately to reverse the looming risk of primate extinctions and to attend to local human needs in sustainable ways. Raising global scientific and public awareness of the plight of the world's primates and the costs of their loss to ecosystem health and human society is imperative.

Diagnostic overview of the illegal trade in primates and law enforcement in Peru.

Peru has one of the richest primate faunas of any country. The illegal trade in wild primates is one of the largest threats to this fauna in Peru. We characterize the illegal trade in primates through empirical and ethnographic data. We collected data from traffic routes and centers throughout Peru and evaluate current efforts to combat this traffic. Based on our findings from 2,070 instances of wildlife crime involving 6,872 primates, we estimate the domestic trade in primates for pets and bushmeat in Peru in the hundreds of thousands per year, with the larger bodied Atelidae facing the highest direct consequences. We found that government authorities lack sufficient staff, capacity, resources, infrastructure, and protocols to efficiently combat illegal trade in primates. Also, the complicated legal framework and lack of cooperation and antagonism with the public further limit these efforts. Wildlife authorities in Peru are able to confiscate only a fraction of primates traded and mostly intervene in cases of private pet owners rather than traffickers. We estimate that the current rate of illegal trade in primates is comparable to levels of trade prior to the 1973 ban on primates' exportation. The combination of direct observations on primate trade and ethnographic data allows a comprehensive look at primate trade in Peru. We call upon decision makers and international funders to channel their efforts toward "on the ground" actions such as increasing the ability of the authorities to act, giving them "in action" training in law enforcement and establishing strict control measures against corruption. Am. J. Primatol. 79:e22516, 2017. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Natural re-establishment of a population of a critically endangered primate in a secondary forest: the San Martin titi monkey (Plecturocebus oenanthe) at the Pucunucho Private Conservation Area, Peru.

The San Martin titi monkey (Plecturocebus oenanthe) is endemic to a small area of northern Peru and is considered Critically Endangered on the IUCN due to massive habitat loss. Between 1994 and 2005 small scale reforestation efforts in the 23.5 ha area of Pucunucho have led to the recuperation of habitat from an area of pasture and crop lands. The first record of P. oenanthe re-establishment in the area is from 2010, although re-establishment probably began earlier. We carried out short population surveys using triangulation to monitor densities of P. oenanthe in Pucunucho in 2011, 2012 and 2016. We estimate the current population of P. oenanthe in this area at 27 individuals, giving population densities of 35 groups/km2 and 124 individuals/km2. The successful regeneration of habitat and natural re-population of the area by this Critically Endangered species provides evidence of successful reforestation based conservation activities for this and potentially other primate species. Although now protected as a Private Conservation Area, Pucunucho remains threatened.

Nota sobre la dieta de la Lechucita Bigotona, Xenoglaux loweryi en Yambrasbamba, Amazonas / Note on the diet of the Long-whiskered Owlet, Xenoglaux loweryi from Yambrasbamba, Amazonas

En este trabajo se dan a conocer los resultados del análisis de heces de la Lechucita Bigotona (Xenoglaux loweryi), especie endémica de Perú y en peligro de extinción según IUCN, que habita los bosques montanos húmedos de la cordillera Oriental de los Andes. Entre enero y setiembre de 2014, durante evaluaciones sobre la ecología de este búho en el área de bosque montano conocido como "La Jalca", en la comunidad de Yambrasbamba, Amazonas; se colectaron cuatro muestras de heces de diferentes individuos, en los meses de mayo, julio, agosto y setiembre correspondientemente. Estos fueron analizados, encontrándose fragmentos característicos del orden Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Ortoptera y Lepidoptera. Confirmándose que parte de su dieta son pequeños insectos; al igual que otros pequeños estrígidos.

We present results of an analysis of faecal samples from the long whiskered owlet (Xenoglaux loweryi), a species endemic to Peru and considered Endangered by the IUCN. It inhabits humid montane forests on the eastern slopes of the Andean cordillera. We collected four faecal samples from different individuals during ecological monitoring. Monitoring was carried out between January and September 2014 in the area known locally as "La Jalca" in the Yambrasbamba community, Amazonas. Samples were collected in May, June, August and September, respectively. Analysis revealed fragments characteristic of the orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Ortoptera and Lepidoptera. Results confirm that small insects form part of the diet of the long whiskered owlet, similar to other small Strigidos.

Disappearing in the Night: An Overview on Trade and Legislation of Night Monkeys in South and Central America.

The international trade in night monkeys (Aotus spp.), found throughout Central and South America, has been regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975. We present a quantitative analysis of this trade from all 9 range countries, over 4 decades, and compare domestic legislation to CITES regulations. Night monkeys were exported from 8 of the 9 habitat countries, totalling 5,968 live individuals and 7,098 specimens, with trade of live individuals declining over time. In terms of species, the most commonly traded was Aotus nancymaae (present in Brazil, Colombia, Peru) followed by A. vociferans (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) and A. zonalis (Colombia, Panama). There was no significant correlation between levels of trade and species' geographic range size or the number of countries in which a species occurs. Five countries have legislation that meets CITES requirements for implementation, whereas the other 4 countries' legislation showed deficiencies. Research conducted in Colombia, Peru, and Brazil suggests significant cross-border trade not captured in official international trade registers. Although international trade has diminished, current trends suggest that populations of rarer species may be under unsustainable pressure. Further research is needed to quantify real trade numbers occurring between habitat countries.