Enteric fungi protect against intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury via inhibiting the SAA1-GSDMD pathway.

INTRODUCTION: Prophylactic antifungal therapy has been widely used for critical patients, but it has failed to improve patient prognosis and has become a hot topic. This may be related to disruption of fungal homeostasis, but the mechanism of fungi action is not clear. As a common pathway in critical patients, intestinal ischemia-reperfusion (IIR) injury is fatal and regulated by gut microbiota. However, the exact role of enteric fungi in IIR injury remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: This is a clinical study that aims to provide new perspectives in clarifying the underlying mechanism of IIR injury and propose potential strategies that could be relevant for the prevention and treatment of IIR injury in the near future. METHODS: ITS sequencing was performed to detect the changes in fungi before and after IIR injury. The composition of enteric fungi was altered by pretreatment with single-fungal strains, fluconazole and mannan, respectively. Intestinal morphology and function impairment were evaluated in the IIR injury mouse model. Intestinal epithelial MODE-K cells and macrophage RAW264.7 cells were cultured for in vitro tests. RESULTS: Fecal fungi diversity revealed the obvious alteration in IIR patients and mice, accompanied by intestinal epithelial barrier dysfunction. Fungal colonization and mannan supplementation could reverse intestinal morphology and function impairment that were exacerbated by fluconazole via inhibiting the expression of SAA1 from macrophages and decreasing pyroptosis of intestinal epithelial cells. Clodronate liposomes were used to deplete the number of macrophages, and it was demonstrated that the protective effect of mannan was dependent on macrophage involvement. CONCLUSION: This finding firstly validates that enteric fungi play a crucial role in IIR injury. Preventive antifungal treatment should consider damaging fungal balance. This study provides a novel clue to clarify the role of enteric fungi in maintaining intestinal homeostasis.

Antifungal Treatment Aggravates Sepsis through the Elimination of Intestinal Fungi.

Prophylactic antifungal therapy is widely adopted clinically for critical patients and effective in reducing the morbidity of invasive fungal infection and improves outcomes of those diagnosed patients; however, it is not associated with higher overall survival. As intestinal commensal fungi play a fundamental role in the host immune response in health and disease, we propose that antifungal therapy may eliminate intestinal fungi and aggravate another critical syndrome, sepsis. Here, with murine sepsis model, we found that antifungal therapy with fluconazole dismissed intestinal fungal burden and aggravated endotoxin-induced but no gram-positive bacteria-induced sepsis. Nevertheless, antifungal therapy did not exert its detrimental effect on germ-free mice. Moreover, colonizing more commensal fungi in the mouse intestine or administration of fungal cell wall component mannan protected the mice from endotoxin-induced sepsis. On the molecular level, we demonstrated that antifungal therapy aggravated endotoxin sepsis through promoting Gasdermin D cleavage in the distal small intestine. Intestinal colonization with commensal fungi inhibited Gasdermin D cleavage in response to lipopolysaccharide challenge. These findings show that intestinal fungi inhibit Gasdermin D-mediated pyroptosis and protect the mice from endotoxin-induced sepsis. This study demonstrates the protective role of intestinal fungi in the pathogenesis of endotoxin-induced sepsis in the laboratory. It will undoubtedly prompt us to study the relationship between antifungal therapy and sepsis in critical patients who are susceptible to endotoxin-induced sepsis in the future.

The RNA helicase Dhx15 mediates Wnt-induced antimicrobial protein expression in Paneth cells.

RNA helicases play roles in various essential biological processes such as RNA splicing and editing. Recent in vitro studies show that RNA helicases are involved in immune responses toward viruses, serving as viral RNA sensors or immune signaling adaptors. However, there is still a lack of in vivo data to support the tissue- or cell-specific function of RNA helicases owing to the lethality of mice with complete knockout of RNA helicases; further, there is a lack of evidence about the antibacterial role of helicases. Here, we investigated the in vivo role of Dhx15 in intestinal antibacterial responses by generating mice that were intestinal epithelial cell (IEC)-specific deficient for Dhx15 (Dhx15 f/f Villin1-cre, Dhx15ΔIEC). These mice are susceptible to infection with enteric bacteria Citrobacter rodentium (C. rod), owing to impaired α-defensin production by Paneth cells. Moreover, mice with Paneth cell-specific depletion of Dhx15 (Dhx15 f/f Defensinα6-cre, Dhx15ΔPaneth) are more susceptible to DSS (dextran sodium sulfate)-induced colitis, which phenocopy Dhx15ΔIEC mice, due to the dysbiosis of the intestinal microbiota. In humans, reduced protein levels of Dhx15 are found in ulcerative colitis (UC) patients. Taken together, our findings identify a key regulator of Wnt-induced α-defensins in Paneth cells and offer insights into its role in the antimicrobial response as well as intestinal inflammation.

SCFAs induce autophagy in intestinal epithelial cells and relieve colitis by stabilizing HIF-1α.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) is a critical regulator of barrier integrity during colonic mucosal injury. Previous works have shown that the absence of autophagy is implicated in the development of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Additionally, changes in bacterial profiles in the gut are intimately associated with IBD. Although HIF-1α, autophagy, microbiota, and their metabolites are all involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, their roles are not known. In this study, we investigated the relationship between HIF-1α and autophagy in healthy and inflammatory states using transgenic mice, colitis models, and cell culture models. We confirmed that the absence of intestinal epithelial HIF-1α changed the composition of the intestinal microbes and increased the susceptibility of mice to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis. In addition, autophagy levels in the intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) were significantly reduced in IEC-specific HIF-1α-deficient (HIF-1α∆IEC) mice. Moreover, in the cell culture models, butyrate treatment significantly increased autophagy in HT29 cells under normal conditions, whereas butyrate had little effect on autophagy after HIF-1α ablation. Furthermore, in the DSS-induced colitis model, butyrate administration relieved the colonic injury and suppressed inflammation in Cre-/HIF-1α- (HIF-1αloxP/loxP) mice. However, the butyrate-mediated protection against colonic injury was considerably diminished in the HIF-1α∆IEC mice. These results show that HIF-1α, autophagy, and intestinal microbes are essential for the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. Butyrate can alleviate DSS-induced colitis by regulating autophagy via HIF-1α. These insights may have important implications for the development of therapeutic strategies for IBD. KEY MESSAGES: • The absence of intestinal epithelial HIF-1α leads to downregulation of autophagy in mice. • The absence of intestinal epithelial HIF-1α exacerbates DSS-induced colitis. • Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) can alleviate DSS-induced colitis by regulating autophagy via HIF-1α.

The protective roles of NLRP6 in intestinal epithelial cells.

The evolution of chronic inflammatory diseases is thought to be due to a combination of host genetic variations and environmental factors that include the alteration of intestinal flora, termed "dysbiosis." The intestinal mucosal barrier includes a chemical barrier and physical barrier that have important roles in protecting the intestine against inflammatory injury. The chemical barrier includes antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), and the physical barrier includes a mucous layer, a monolayer of intestinal epithelial cells and cell junctions. The intestinal mucosal barrier is not a static barrier, but rather, it strongly interacts with the gut microbiome and cells of the immune system. Correct expression of AMPs, together with mucus and balanced epithelial cell proliferation, prevents the occurrence of disease. NLRP6, a member of the nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat-containing (NLR) innate immune receptor family, participates in the progression of intestinal inflammation and enteric pathogen infections. It has become apparent in recent years that NLRP6 is important in disease pathogenesis, as it responds to internal ligands that lead to the release of AMPs and mucus, thus regulating the regeneration of intestinal epithelial cells. This review summarizes the activation of NLRP6 and its protective role in the intestinal epithelial cell.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor inhibits inflammation in DSS­induced colitis via the MK2/p­MK2/TTP pathway.

The pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is believed to be associated with the abnormal expression of inflammatory factors. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand­dependent transcription factor, which can suppress the inflammatory response and attenuate experimental colitis. However, the detailed mechanism underlying the effects of AhR remains unclear. The present study investigated the role of AhR in the pathogenesis of IBD. Colitis was induced in mice by administration of 3% dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) for 7 days. The mice were also administered injections of the AhR agonist, 6­formylindolo(3,2­b)carbazole (FICZ), starting 2 days after the first administration of DSS. Furthermore, LoVo cells were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence or absence of FICZ for 8 h. The protein expression levels of AhR, cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) and tristetraprolin (TTP) were assessed by western blotting and immunofluorescence, whereas mRNA expression levels were assessed by reverse transcription­quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The results indicated that injection of mice with FICZ significantly attenuated DSS­induced colitis; in addition, the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines were markedly downregulated. Conversely, the expression levels of AhR and TTP were upregulated. In addition, mice in the AhR­knockout + DSS group exhibited elevated inflammatory cytokine production and developed more severe colitis. In LoVo cells, incubation with FICZ decreased the expression levels of inflammatory cytokines, whereas AhR and TTP expression was increased. In addition, the levels of phosphorylated­mitogen­activated protein kinase­activated protein kinase 2 (p­MK2) were decreased. These results suggested that AhR deficiency resulted in increased susceptibility to colitis, whereas activation of AhR by FICZ could ameliorate DSS­induced colitis via the MK2/p­MK2/TTP pathway.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation maintained the intestinal epithelial barrier function through Notch1 dependent signaling pathway.

Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) induces disruption of the intestinal barrier function. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) has a vital role in maintaining the intestinal barrier function. However, the precise mechanism by which AhR maintains intestinal barrier function remains unclear. Notch1 signaling is downstream of AhR, and has also been reported to have a role in the development of tight junctions (TJs) and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. Therefore, we hypothesized that AhR activation may attenuate the intestinal barrier dysfunction through increased activation of Notch1 signaling. Adult C57BL/6J mice were divided into three groups: Sham, I/R and I/R + 6-formylindolo(3,2-b)carbazole (Ficz) groups. Mice were sacrificed after I/R for 6 h and the intestine was harvested for histological examination, mRNA and protein content analysis, and mucosal permeability investigation. Additionally, a hypoxic Caco­2 cell culture model was used to evaluate the role of AhR­Notch1 signaling in the development of TJs and epithelial permeability in vitro. The AhR­Notch1 signaling components and TJ proteins were assessed by reverse transcription­quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blotting, immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence staining. Epithelial permeability was detected by transepithelium electrical resistance. The data demonstrated that Ficz significantly attenuated the intestinal tissue damage and the disrupted distribution of TJs, increased the expression of TJ proteins, reversed the decrease in TER and upregulated epithelial Notch1 signaling following intestinal I/R in vivo and hypoxia in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of Notch1 signaling by N­[N­(3,5­difluorophenacetyl)­L­alanyl]­S­phenylglycine t­butyl ester (inhibitor of Notch signaling) counteracted the effects of Ficz on the development of TJs in hypoxic Caco­2 cells. In conclusion, AhR activation ameliorated epithelial barrier dysfunction following intestinal I/R and hypoxia through upregulation of Notch1 signaling, which suggests that AhR may be a potential pharmaceutical agent to combat this condition.

AhR­E2F1­KGFR signaling is involved in KGF­induced intestinal epithelial cell proliferation.

Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) stimulates intestinal epithelial cell proliferation upon binding to the KGF receptor (KGFR). The activated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) serves an important role in the development of tissues by promoting the expression of AhR receptors, which can regulate cell proliferation. In the present study, the signaling pathway between AhR and KGFR in investigated with regards to KGF­induced intestinal epithelial cell proliferation. Male C57BL/6J wild type and AhR­/­ mice, were randomized into four groups: Control, KGF, AhR­/­ + KGF and AhR­/­ (n=6 per group). The small bowel was harvested on day 5 post­treatment. LoVo cells were used to study signaling pathways in vitro and were divided into the following four treatment groups: DMSO, KGF, KGF + small­interfering (si)AhR and siAhR. In vivo, knockdown of AhR mRNA transcripts may abolish KGF­induced intestinal epithelial cell proliferation. Furthermore, KGFR expression was downregulated following knockdown or silencing of AhR expression in vivo and in vitro. The present study identified that the transcription factor E2F1 could regulate KGFR expression, and that siAhR treatment led to reduced expression of E2F1 in the nucleus and inhibited KGF­induced cell proliferation. In conclusion, the current results demonstrated that the AhR­E2F1­KGFR pathway is involved in KGF­induced intestinal epithelial cell proliferation.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation modulates CD8αα+TCRαß+ IELs and suppression of colitis manifestations in mice.

BACKGROUND: This research is dedicated to investigating the effects and potential mechanism of action of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor on the intestinal mucosal immune system in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis. METHODS: Colitis was induced by the administration of 3% DSS to wild-type C57BL/6J mice for 7days. 6-formylindolo(3, 2-b)carbazole (FICZ), an endogenous agonist of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), was given intraperitoneally on a daily basis beginning 2days after the start of DSS administration. The mice were weighed and assessed, and colon tissues were measured. Intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) were isolated from the colon and examined by flow cytometry and quantitative real-time PCR. RESULTS: FICZ ameliorated DSS-induced colitis, resulting in a reduced disease activity index and improvement in the histology and length of the colon. Colitis reduced the percentage and number of CD8αα+TCRαß+ IELs. FICZ prevented the reduction in the numbers of CD8αα+TCRαß+ IELs by upregulating the expression of the IL-15 receptor and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), and attenuating the apoptotic rate of CD8αα+TCRαß+ IELs. Finally, IL-10 was increased and IFN-γ was decreased in CD8αα+TCRαß+ IELs by FICZ administration in DSS-induced colitis. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that AhR activation ameliorated DSS-induced acute colitis, in a manner that is associated with the local expansion and functions of CD8αα+TCRαß+ IELs in acute colitis. The findings indicate that AhR-related ligands might be targeted as novel drug targets for IBD.

Role of AhR in positive regulation of cell proliferation and survival.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is an important nuclear transcription factor that is best known for mediating toxic responses by adjusting numbers of metabolism-related enzymes, including CYP1A1 and CYP1B1. Previous findings have revealed that, in addition to negatively regulating cell proliferation and survival, AhR may also positively regulate these pathways. Here, we review these findings and summarize distinct mechanisms by which AhR promotes cell proliferation and survival, including modulation of receptor expression, growth factor signalling and apoptosis, regulating the cell cycle and promoting cytokine expression. This review will aid better understanding the role of AhR in positive regulation of cell proliferation and survival.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation in Intestinal Obstruction Ameliorates Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction Via Suppression of MLCK-MLC Phosphorylation Pathway.

BACKGROUND: Accumulating evidence suggests that the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) plays an important role in the maintenance of the function of the intestinal barrier in patients with inflammatory bowel disease and in mouse models. Intestinal obstruction (IO) is a clinical emergency consisting of severe dysfunction of intestinal barrier function, and whether AhR plays a role in the pathogenesis of IO remains unknown but would be highly significant. METHODS: Male C57BL/6 mice were subjected to IO and either treated with AhR endogenous agonist 6-formylindolo [3, 2-b] carbazole (FICZ) or left untreated. Intestinal tissue was harvested after 24 h. Correspondingly, Caco-2 monolayers were treated with FICZ in the absence or presence of hypoxia in vitro or left untreated. The cells were used after 12 h. RESULTS: Damage to the intestinal mucosa was anabatic and intestinal permeability was significantly higher in murine IO and hypoxia-induced Caco-2 models than in controls. Under these conditions the activity of AhR was lower and the fluorescence of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) was absent. The increased expression of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and phosphorylated MLC (pMLC) indicated that this pathway was open. However, treatment with FICZ caused retention of the tight junction protein ZO-1, alleviated the increase of intestinal permeability, and mitigated epithelial injury. Depletion of AhR by AhR small interfering RNA facilitated the unblocking of the MLCK-pMLC signaling pathway and repressed the protein expression of ZO-1 in vitro. CONCLUSION: AhR activation can ameliorate epithelial barrier dysfunction induced by IO through the suppression of MLCK-pMLC signaling, suggesting that AhR agonist may be a suitable means of addressing this condition.

The AhR is involved in the regulation of LoVo cell proliferation through cell cycle-associated proteins.

Some ingredients in foods can activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and arrest cell proliferation. In this study, we hypothesized that 6-formylindolo [3, 2-b] carbazole (FICZ) arrests the cell cycle in LoVo cells (a colon cancer line) through the AhR. The AhR agonist FICZ and the AhR antagonist CH223191 were used to treat LoVo cells. Real-time PCR and Western blot analyses were performed to detect the expression of the AhR, CYP1A1, CDK4, cyclinD1, cyclin E, CDK2, P27, and pRb. The distribution and activation of the AhR were detected with immunofluorescence. A 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and flow cytometric analysis were performed to measure cell viability, cell cycle stage, and apoptosis. Our results show that FICZ inhibited LoVo cell proliferation by inducing G1 cell cycle arrest but had no effect on epithelial apoptosis. Further analysis found that FICZ downregulated cyclinD1 and upregulated p27 expression to arrest Rb phosphorylation. The downregulation of cyclinD1 and upregulation of p27 were abolished by co-treatment with CH223191. We conclude that the AhR, when activated by FICZ (an endogenous AhR ligand), can arrest the cell cycle and block LoVo cell proliferation.

Keratinocyte Growth Factor Regulation of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation in Colorectal Cancer Cells.

BACKGROUND: Keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) stimulates normal growth, development and intestinal epithelial cell proliferation. Cyclin D1 promotes the cell cycle by inhibiting retinoblastoma protein (RB1). The activated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) has an important influence on the development of tumors through its interactions with the cell cycle. AIM: The aim of the present study was to explore a new role for AhR in KGF-induced colon cancer cell growth. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Real-time PCR, western blot or immunofluorescence analysis were used to detect the expression of KGF, AhR, cyclin D1 and CYP1A1. Immunohistochemistry was used to observe the localization of AhR. MTT assay and flow cytometric analyses were performed to measure cell viability and the cell cycle. RESULTS: Real-time PCR analysis revealed that KGF, AhR, and CYP1A1 mRNAs were overexpressed in colorectal cancer tissues. Meanwhile, overexpression of AhR was primarily observed in epithelial cells. In in vitro assay, KGF promoted colon cancer cell growth, as well as up-regulated and activated AhR. At the same time, AhR-knockdown colon cancer cells were less responsive to KGF. Western blot analysis, real-time PCR, or immunofluorescence data indicated that cyclin D1 expression was up-regulated by KGF but this up-regulation was compromised when AhR was silenced, and the cell cycle was arrested in the G0/G1 stage in these cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that KGF, AhR, and CYP1A1 are overexpressed in colorectal cancer tissues. Moreover, we reveal a new mechanism by which KGF promotes cell proliferation through the AhR-cyclin D1 pathway in colon cancer cells.