Choline intake and its dietary reference values in Korea and other countries: a review.

Choline is a water-soluble organic compound that is important for the normal functioning of the body. It is an essential dietary component as de novo synthesis by the human body is insufficient. Since the United States set the Adequate Intakes (AIs) for total choline as dietary reference values in 1998, Australia, China, and the European Union have also established the choline AIs. Although choline is clearly essential to life, the 2020 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) has not established the values because very few studies have been done on choline intake in Koreans. Since choline intake levels differ by race and country, human studies on Koreans are essential to set KDRIs. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to provide basic data for developing choline KDRIs in the future by analyzing data on choline intake in Koreans to date and reference values of choline intake and dietary choline intake status by country and race.

The Effects of Diet Alone or in Combination with Exercise in Patients with Prehypertension and Hypertension: a Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Supervised lifestyle interventions, including dietary and exercise programs, may be infeasible to implement in real-world settings. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a home-based lifestyle modification intervention on blood pressure (BP) management. METHODS: Eighty-five patients aged over 20 years and diagnosed with prehypertension or mild hypertension were randomly assigned to an advice-only comparison group (C group, n=28), a Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet education group (D group, n=30), or a DASH and home-based exercise group (D+Ex group, n=27). The intervention lasted for 8 weeks. The primary outcome was the difference in office systolic blood pressure (SBP) before and after the study period (Trial registry at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01637909). RESULTS: Seventy-two participants (87.8%) completed the trial. The degree of change in office SBP did not significantly differ among the intervention groups; however, the D+Ex group demonstrated a tendency toward decreased SBP. Upon analysis of 24-hour ambulatory BP measurements, daytime ambulatory SBP was significantly lower in the D+Ex group (134 mmHg; 95% confidence interval [CI], 131 to 137; p=0.011) than in the C group (139.5 mmHg; 95% CI, 130.9 to 137), and daytime ambulatory SBP was significantly decreased in the D+Ex group (-5.2 mmHg; 95% CI, -8.3 to -2.1; p=0.011) compared to the C group (0.4 mmHg, 95% CI, -2.5 to 3.3). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, lifestyle modification emphasizing both diet and exercise was effective for lowering BP and should be favored over diet-only modifications.

Inhibitory effect of Gastrodia elata Blume extract on alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone-induced melanogenesis in murine B16F10 melanoma.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Gastrodia elata Blume (GEB), a traditional herbal medicine, has been used to treat a wide range of neurological disorders (e.g., paralysis and stroke) and skin problems (e.g., atopic dermatitis and eczema) in oriental medicine. This study was designed to investigate whether GEB extract inhibits melanogenesis activity in murine B16F10 melanoma. MATERIALS/METHOD: Murine B16F10 cells were treated with 0-5 mg/mL of GEB extract or 400 µg/mL arbutin (a positive control) for 72 h after treatment with/without 200 nM alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) for 24 h. Melanin concentration, tyrosinase activity, mRNA levels, and protein expression of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF), tyrosinase, tyrosinase-related protein (Trp)1, and Trp2 were analyzed in α-MSH-untreated and α-MSH-treated B16F10 cells. RESULTS: Treatment with 200 nM α-MSH induced almost 2-fold melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity along with increased mRNA levels and protein expression of MITF, tyrosinase, Trp1 and Trp2. Irrespective of α-MSH stimulation, GEB extract at doses of 0.5-5 mg/mL inhibited all these markers for skin whitening in a dose-dependent manner. While lower doses (0.5-1 mg/mL) of GEB extract generally had a tendency to decrease melanogenesis, tyrosinase activity, and mRNA levels and protein expression of MITF, tyrosinase, Trp1, and Trp2, higher doses (2-5 mg/mL) significantly inhibited all these markers in α-MSH-treated B16F10 cells in a dose-dependent manner. These inhibitory effects of the GEB extract at higher concentrations were similar to those of 400 µg/mL arbutin, a well-known depigmenting agent. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that GEB displays dose-dependent inhibition of melanin synthesis through the suppression of tyrosinase activity as well as molecular levels of MITF, tyrosinase, Trp1, and Trp2 in murine B16F10 melanoma. Therefore, GEB may be an effective and natural skin-whitening agent for application in the cosmetic industry.

Association of serum carotenoid, retinol, and tocopherol concentrations with the progression of Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: A pivotal role of oxidative stress has been emphasized in the pathogenesis as well as in the disease progression of Parkinson's disease (PD). We aimed at investigating serum levels of antioxidant vitamins and elucidating whether they could be associated with the pathogenesis and progression of PD. MATERIALS/METHODS: Serum levels of retinol, α- and γ-tocopherols, α- and ß-carotenes, lutein, lycopene, zeaxanthin and ß-cryptoxanthin were measured and compared between 104 patients with idiopathic PD and 52 healthy controls matched for age and gender. In order to examine the relationship between antioxidant vitamins and the disease progression, multiple group comparisons were performed among the early PD (Hoehn and Yahr stage I and II, N = 47), advanced PD (stage III and IV, N = 57) and control groups. Separate correlation analyses were performed between the measured antioxidant vitamins and clinical variables, such as Hoehn and Yahr stage and Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) motor score. RESULTS: Compared to controls, PD patients had lower levels of α- and ß-carotenes and lycopene. α-carotene, ß-carotene and lycopene levels were significantly reduced in advanced PD patients relative to early PD patients and were negatively correlated with Hoehn and Yahr stage and UPDRS motor score in PD patients. No significant differences were found in serum levels of retinol, α- and γ-tocopherols, and other carotenoids between PD patients and controls. No significant correlations were found between these vitamin levels and clinical variables in PD patients. CONCLUSIONS: We found that serum levels of some carotenoids, α-carotene, ß-carotene and lycopene, were lower in PD patients, and that these carotenoids inversely correlated with clinical variables representing disease progression. Our findings suggest that decreases in serum α-carotene, ß-carotene and lycopene may be associated with the pathogenesis as well as progression of PD.

Gastrodia elata Blume Extract Modulates Antioxidant Activity and Ultraviolet A-Irradiated Skin Aging in Human Dermal Fibroblast Cells.

Gastrodia elata Blume (GEB), a traditional herbal medicine, has been used to treat a wide range of neurological disorders (e.g., paralysis and stroke) and skin problems (e.g., atopic dermatitis and eczema) in oriental medicine. This study was designed to investigate the antioxidant ability of GEB and its antiaging effect on human dermal fibroblast cells (HDF). The total phenolic and flavonoid contents of GEB were 21.8 and 0.43 mg/g dry weight (DW), respectively. The ergothioneine content of GEB was 0.41 mg/mL DW. The DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of GEB at 5 and 10 mg/mL approximately ranged between 31% and 44%. The superoxide dismutase activity of GEB at 10 and 25 mg/mL was 57% and 76%, respectively. GEB increased procollagen type 1 (PC1) production and inhibited matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) production and elastase-1 activity in UVA-irradiated HDF. PC1 messenger RNA (mRNA) levels decreased upon UVA irradiation, but recovered in response to high doses of GEB in HDF. On the contrary, GEB significantly decreased MMP-1 and elastase-1 mRNA levels, which were markedly induced in UVA-irradiated HDF. Collectively, these results suggest that GEB has sufficient antioxidant ability to prevent the signs of skin aging in UVA-irradiated human skin cells, suggesting its potential as a natural antiaging product.

Bioconverted Jeju Hallabong tangor (Citrus kiyomi × ponkan) peel extracts by cytolase enhance antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity in RAW 264.7 cells.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Citrus and its peels have been used in Asian folk medicine due to abundant flavonoids and usage of citrus peels, which are byproducts from juice and/or jam processing, may be a good strategy. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of bioconversion of Jeju Hallabong tangor (Citrus kiyomi × ponkan; CKP) peels with cytolase (CKP-C) in RAW 264.7 cells. MATERIALS/METHODS: Glycosides of CKP were converted into aglycosides with cytolase treatment. RAW 264.7 cells were pre-treated with 0, 100, or 200 µg/ml of citrus peel extracts for 4 h, followed by stimulation with 1 µg/ml lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 8 h. Cell viability, DPPH radical scavenging activity, nitric oxide (NO), and prostagladin E2 (PGE2) production were examined. Real time-PCR and western immunoblotting assay were performed for detection of mRNA and/or protein expression of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines, respectively. RESULTS: HPLC analysis showed that treatment of CKP with cytolase resulted in decreased flavanone rutinoside forms (narirutin and hesperidin) and increased flavanone aglycoside forms (naringenin and hesperetin). DPPH scavenging activities were observed in a dose-dependent manner for all of the citrus peel extracts and CKP-C was more potent than intact CKP. All of the citrus peel extracts decreased NO production by inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity and PGE2 production by COX-2. Higher dose of CKP and all CKP-C groups significantly decreased mRNA and protein expression of LPS-stimulated iNOS. Only 200 µg/ml of CKP-C markedly decreased mRNA and protein expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Both 100 and 200 µg/ml of CKP-C notably inhibited mRNA levels of interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) and IL-6, whereas 200 µg/ml CKP-C significantly inhibited mRNA levels of TNF-α. CONCLUSIONS: This result suggests that bioconversion of citrus peels with cytolase may enrich aglycoside flavanones of citrus peels and provide more potent functional food materials for prevention of chronic diseases attributable to oxidation and inflammation by increasing radical scavenging activity and suppressing pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines.

Nitrooleate mediates nitric oxide synthase activation in endothelial cells.

Nitrated lipids such as nitrooleate (OLA-NO2) can act as endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) ligands to exert vascular protective effects. However, the molecular mechanisms regarding nitric oxide (NO) production and its regulation are not fully defined in the vasculature. Here, we show that OLA-NO2 increased endothelial NO release by modulating activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) in endothelial cells. Treatment with OLA-NO2 (3 µM) increased NO release in a time-dependent manner. OLA-NO2 decreased protein expression of eNOS and caveolin-1 (Cav-1) but increased heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) expression. Immunoprecipitation analysis confirmed that OLA-NO2 replaced eNOS/Cav-1 with eNOS/Hsp90 interaction, resulting in increasing eNOS activity. OLA-NO2 also induced eNOS phosphorylation at Ser633 and Ser1177 and eNOS dephosphorylation at Ser113 and Thr495. In addition, OLA-NO2 induced phosphorylation of Akt and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK1/2), which might contribute to eNOS activation. Collectively, these results substantiate a new functional role for nitrated fatty acid, demonstrating that OLA-NO2 exerts vascular protective effects by increasing NO bioavailability through eNOS phosphorylation/dephosphorylation and interaction with associated proteins such as Hsp90 and Cav-1.

Dietary sodium intake in young Korean adults and its relationship with eating frequency and taste preference.

Dietary sodium intake is considered one of the major causal factors for hypertension. Thus, to control the increase of blood pressure and reduce the risk of hypertension-related clinical complications, a reduction in sodium intake is recommended. The present study aimed at determining the association of dietary sodium intake with meal and snack frequency, snacking time, and taste preference in Korean young adults aged 20-26 years, using a 125-item dish-frequency questionnaire. The mean dietary sodium intakes of men and women were 270.6 mmol/day and 213.1 mmol/day, which were approximately 310% and 245% of the daily sodium intake goal for Korean men and women, respectively. Dietary sodium intake was positively correlated with systolic blood pressure in the total group, and BMI in the total and men-only groups. In the total and men-only groups, those who consumed meals more times per day consumed more dietary sodium, but the number of times they consumed snacks was negatively correlated with dietary sodium intake in the total, men-only, and women-only groups. In addition, those who consumed snacks in the evening consumed more sodium than those who did so in the morning in the men-only group. The sodium intake was also positively associated with preference for salty and sweet taste in the total and women-only groups. Such a high intake of sodium in these young subjects shows that a reduction in sodium intake is important for the prevention of hypertension and related diseases in the future.

Interaction Effects of Lipoprotein Lipase Polymorphisms with Lifestyle on Lipid Levels in a Korean Population: A Cross-sectional Study.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) plays an essential role in the regulation of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) and triglyceride levels, which have been closely associated with cardiovascular diseases. Genetic studies in European have shown that LPL single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are strongly associated with lipid levels. However, studies about the influence of interactions between LPL SNPs and lifestyle factors have not been sufficiently performed. Here, we examine if LPL polymorphisms, as well as their interaction with lifestyle factors, influence lipid concentrations in a Korean population. A two-stage association study was performed using genotype data for SNPs on the LPL gene, including the 3' flanking region from 7,536 (stage 1) and 3,703 (stage 2) individuals. The association study showed that 15 SNPs and 4 haplotypes were strongly associated with HDLC (lowest p = 2.86 × 10(-22)) and triglyceride levels (lowest p = 3.0 × 10(-15)). Interactions between LPL polymorphisms and lifestyle factors (lowest p = 9.6 × 10(-4)) were also observed on lipid concentrations. These findings suggest that there are interaction effects of LPL polymorphisms with lifestyle variables, including energy intake, fat intake, smoking, and alcohol consumption, as well as effects of LPL polymorphisms themselves, on lipid concentrations in a Korean population.

Retinoids, carotenoids, and tocopherols in breast adipose tissue and serum of benign breast disease and breast cancer patients.

Various retinoic acid (RA) isomers (all-trans, 13-cis, 11-cis, and 9-cis) as well as retinol, carotenoids, and tocopherol concentrations were determined in both serum and breast adipose tissue of 22 benign breast disease patients and 52 breast cancer patients categorized into 4 stages by malignancy. Serum RA isomers were analyzed by a newly developed sensitive method combining a high-performance liquid chromatography and a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and retinol, carotenoid, and tocopherol concentrations using a high-performance liquid chromatography system. The breast cancer patients showed significantly lower serum retinol, whereas significantly higher breast adipose tissue retinol concentration than those of benign breast disease patients. Although breast cancer patients showed significantly higher serum all-trans and 13-cis RA concentrations, 11-cis RA in breast adipose tissue was significantly lower in the breast cancer patients than those of benign breast disease patients and it was associated with the stage of malignancy. The current study indicates that the retinol and RA isomers in the target tissue of breast tumor patients are not reflecting their concentrations in circulation. The mechanisms of tissue specific uptake of RA isomers and their functions warrant further studies.

Dietary saturated and monounsaturated fats protect against acute acetaminophen hepatotoxicity by altering fatty acid composition of liver microsomal membrane in rats.

BACKGROUND: Dietary polyunsaturated fats increase liver injury in response to ethanol feeding. We evaluated the effect of dietary corn oil (CO), olive oil (OO), and beef tallow (BT) on fatty acid composition of liver microsomal membrane and acute acetaminophen hepatotoxicity. METHODS: Male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed 15% (wt/wt) CO, OO or BT for 6 weeks. After treatment with acetaminophen (600 mg/kg), samples of plasma and liver were taken for analyses of the fatty acid composition and toxicity. RESULTS: Treatment with acetaminophen significantly elevated levels of plasma GOT and GPT as well as hepatic TBARS but reduced hepatic GSH levels in CO compared to OO and BT groups. Acetaminophen significantly induced protein expression of cytochrome P450 2E1 in the CO group. In comparison with the CO diet, lower levels of linoleic acid, higher levels of oleic acids and therefore much lower ratios of linoleic to oleic acid were detected in rats fed OO and BT diets. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary OO and BT produces similar liver microsomal fatty acid composition and may account for less severe liver injury after acetaminophen treatment compared to animals fed diets with CO rich in linoleic acid. These findings imply that types of dietary fat may be important in the nutritional management of drug-induced hepatotoxicity.

Increased inflammation, reduced plasma phospholipid eicosapentaenoic acid and reduced antioxidant potential of treated hypertensive patients with metabolic syndrome.

PURPOSE: In the present study, we tested whether the presence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) would worsen the features of inflammation, plasma omega 3 fatty acid levels and antioxidant potential in treated hypertensive patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: TWO GROUPS WERE CLASSIFIED BY THE COMPONENTS OF METS: a reference group of treated hypertensive subjects: hypertension (HTN) group (n = 39) and with more than two additional MetS components: HTN with Mets group (n = 40). We further compared the parameters between HTN group and HTN with MetS group. RESULTS: The results showed that age (p < 0.001) and body mass index (BMI) (p < 0.001) were significantly different between HTN group and HTN with MetS group. Age- and BMI-adjusted total radical trapping antioxidant potential (TRAP) (p < 0.01) was significantly lower, whereas age- and BMI-adjusted CD (p < 0.05) and interleukin (IL) 6 (p < 0.05) were significantly higher in HTN with MetS group than in HTN group. Moreover, HTN with MetS group had significantly lower levels of age- and BMI-adjusted plasma phospholipid eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) than HTN group (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the levels of age- and BMI-adjusted intracellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), adiponectin and high molecular weight (HMW)-adiponectin were not significantly different between the groups. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, our results showed increased inflammatory marker, reduced antioxidant potential and EPA levels in treated hypertensive patients in the presence of MetS, suggesting the importance of changes of therapeutic lifestyle to modify the features of MetS.