Costs of being a diet generalist for the protist predator Dictyostelium discoideum.

Consumers range from specialists that feed on few resources to generalists that feed on many. Generalism has the clear advantage of having more resources to exploit, but the costs that limit generalism are less clear. We explore two understudied costs of generalism in a generalist amoeba predator, Dictyostelium discoideum, feeding on naturally co-occurring bacterial prey. Both involve costs of combining prey that are suitable on their own. First, amoebas exhibit a reduction in growth rate when they switched to one species of prey bacteria from another compared to controls that experience only the second prey. The effect was consistent across all six tested species of bacteria. These switching costs typically disappear within a day, indicating adjustment to new prey bacteria. This suggests that these costs are physiological. Second, amoebas usually grow more slowly on mixtures of prey bacteria compared to the expectation based on their growth on single prey. There were clear mixing costs in three of the six tested prey mixtures, and none showed significant mixing benefits. These results support the idea that, although amoebas can consume a variety of prey, they must use partially different methods and thus must pay costs to handle multiple prey, either sequentially or simultaneously.

Predation-resistant Pseudomonas bacteria engage in symbiont-like behavior with the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum.

The soil amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum acts as both a predator and potential host for diverse bacteria. We tested fifteen Pseudomonas strains that were isolated from transiently infected wild D. discoideum for ability to escape predation and infect D. discoideum fruiting bodies. Three predation-resistant strains frequently caused extracellular infections of fruiting bodies but were not found within spores. Furthermore, infection by one of these species induces secondary infections and suppresses predation of otherwise edible bacteria. Another strain can persist inside of amoebae after being phagocytosed but is rarely taken up. We sequenced isolate genomes and discovered that predation-resistant isolates are not monophyletic. Many Pseudomonas isolates encode secretion systems and toxins known to improve resistance to phagocytosis in other species, as well as diverse secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters that may contribute to predation resistance. However, the distribution of these genes alone cannot explain why some strains are edible and others are not. Each lineage may employ a unique mechanism for resistance.

Desiccation Stress Acts as Cause as well as Cost of Dispersal in Drosophila melanogaster.

AbstractEnvironmental stress is one of the important causes of biological dispersal. At the same time, the process of dispersal itself can incur and/or increase susceptibility to stress for the dispersing individuals. Therefore, in principle, stress can serve as both a cause and a cost of dispersal. We studied these potentially contrasting roles of a key environmental stress (desiccation) using Drosophila melanogaster. By modulating water and rest availability, we asked whether (a) dispersers are individuals that are more susceptible to desiccation stress, (b) dispersers pay a cost in terms of reduced resistance to desiccation stress, (c) dispersal evolution alters the desiccation cost of dispersal, and (d) females pay a reproductive cost of dispersal. We found that desiccation was a clear cause of dispersal in both sexes, as both male and female dispersal propensity increased with increasing duration of desiccation. However, the desiccation cost of dispersal was male biased, a trend unaffected by dispersal evolution. Instead, females paid a fecundity cost of dispersal. We discuss the complex relationship between desiccation and dispersal, which can lead to both positive and negative associations. Furthermore, the sex differences highlighted here may translate into differences in movement patterns, thereby giving rise to sex-biased dispersal patterns.

Cooperation and conflict in the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum.

The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has provided considerable insight into the evolution of cooperation and conflict. Under starvation, D. discoideum amoebas cooperate to form a fruiting body comprised of hardy spores atop a stalk. The stalk development is altruistic because stalk cells die to aid spore dispersal. The high relatedness of cells in fruiting bodies in nature implies that this altruism often benefits relatives. However, since the fruiting body forms through aggregation there is potential for non-relatives to join the aggregate and create conflict over spore and stalk fates. Cheating is common in chimeras of social amoebas, where one genotype often takes advantage of the other and makes more spores. This social conflict is a significant force in nature as indicated by rapid rates of adaptive evolution in genes involved in cheating and its resistance. However, cheating can be prevented by high relatedness, allorecognition via tgr genes, pleiotropy and evolved resistance. Future avenues for the study of cooperation and conflict in D. discoideum include the sexual cycle as well as the relationship between D. discoideum and its bacterial symbionts. D. discoideum's tractability in the laboratory as well as its uncommon mode of aggregative multicellularity have established it as a promising model for future studies of cooperation and conflict.

Sex differences in dispersal syndrome are modulated by environment and evolution.

Dispersal syndromes (i.e. suites of phenotypic correlates of dispersal) are potentially important determinants of local adaptation in populations. Species that exhibit sexual dimorphism in their life history or behaviour may exhibit sex-specific differences in their dispersal syndromes. Unfortunately, there is little empirical evidence of sex differences in dispersal syndromes and how they respond to environmental change or dispersal evolution. We investigated these issues using two same-generation studies and a long-term (greater than 70 generations) selection experiment on laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster There was a marked difference between the dispersal syndromes of males and females, the extent of which was modulated by nutrition availability. Moreover, dispersal evolution via spatial sorting reversed the direction of dispersal×sex interaction in one trait (desiccation resistance), while eliminating the sex difference in another trait (body size). Thus, we show that sex differences obtained through same-generation trait-associations ('ecological dispersal syndromes') are probably environment-dependent. Moreover, even under constant environments, they are not good predictors of the sex differences in 'evolutionary dispersal syndrome' (i.e. trait-associations shaped during dispersal evolution). Our findings have implications for local adaptation in the context of sex-biased dispersal and habitat-matching, as well as for the use of dispersal syndromes as a proxy of dispersal.This article is part of the theme issue 'Linking local adaptation with the evolution of sex differences'.

Evolution of dispersal syndrome and its corresponding metabolomic changes.

Dispersal is one of the strategies for organisms to deal with climate change and habitat degradation. Therefore, investigating the effects of dispersal evolution on natural populations is of considerable interest to ecologists and conservation biologists. Although it is known that dispersal itself can evolve due to selection, the behavioral, life-history and metabolic consequences of dispersal evolution are not well understood. Here, we explore these issues by subjecting four outbred laboratory populations of Drosophila melanogaster to selection for increased dispersal. The dispersal-selected populations had similar values of body size, fecundity, and longevity as the nonselected lines (controls), but evolved significantly greater locomotor activity, exploratory tendency, and aggression. Untargeted metabolomic fingerprinting through NMR spectroscopy suggested that the selected flies evolved elevated cellular respiration characterized by greater amounts of glucose, AMP, and NAD. Concurrent evolution of higher level of Octopamine and other neurotransmitters indicate a possible mechanism for the behavioral changes in the selected lines. We discuss the generalizability of our findings in the context of observations from natural populations. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the evolution of metabolome due to selection for dispersal and its connection to dispersal syndrome evolution.