ACR Appropriateness Criteria head trauma--child.

Head trauma is a frequent indication for cranial imaging in children. CT is considered the first line of study for suspected intracranial injury because of its wide availability and rapid detection of acute hemorrhage. However, the majority of childhood head injuries occur without neurologic complications, and particular consideration should be given to the greater risks of ionizing radiation in young patients in the decision to use CT for those with mild head trauma. MRI can detect traumatic complications without radiation, but often requires sedation in children, owing to the examination length and motion sensitivity, which limits rapid assessment and exposes the patient to potential anesthesia risks. MRI may be helpful in patients with suspected nonaccidental trauma, with which axonal shear injury and ischemia are more common and documentation is critical, as well as in those whose clinical status is discordant with CT findings. Advanced techniques, such as diffusion tensor imaging, may identify changes occult by standard imaging, but data are currently insufficient to support routine clinical use. The ACR Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed every 3 years by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and review include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer-reviewed journals and the application of a well-established consensus methodology (modified Delphi) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures by the panel. In those instances in which evidence is lacking or not definitive, expert opinion may be used to recommend imaging or treatment.

Ultrasound-guidance can reduce adverse events during femoral central venous cannulation.

BACKGROUND: Ultrasound-guidance for internal jugular central venous cannulation (CVC) has become the recommended best practice and has been shown to improve placement success and reduce complications. There is a dearth of studies that evaluate emergency point-of-care ultrasound guidance of femoral CVC. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to determine if point-of-care ultrasound guidance for femoral CVC decreases adverse events and increases the likelihood of successful placement when compared with the landmark technique. METHODS: We conducted an Institutional Review Board-approved, prospective, observational study of consecutive patients who required CVC. Physicians who performed CVC completed a standardized, web-based data sheet for a national CVC registry. We evaluated single-institution data regarding CVC site, ultrasound usage, CVC indication, and mechanical complications (e.g., pneumothorax, arterial puncture, failed access, catheter misdirection, and hematoma). The study period was between January 2006 and June 2010. Analysis using Pearson's χ(2) and Agresti-Coull binomial confidence intervals was performed; significance was defined as p < 0.05. RESULTS: We evaluated data for 143 patients who had femoral CVC in our institution. Sixty CVCs (42%) were performed under ultrasound guidance, 83 (58%) via landmark technique (p = 0.0159); 3.3% of femoral central venous lines placed by ultrasound guidance had recorded adverse events compared with 9.6% for the landmark technique (p = 0.145). There was no statistically significant difference in complications between ultrasound-guidance and landmark techniques. Our data showed a trend toward decreased rates of arterial puncture and reduced cannulation attempts resulting in improved placement success. CONCLUSIONS: Our experience shows that ultrasound guidance for femoral CVC might decrease complications and improve placement success, although we cannot recommend this approach without additional data. We recommend a larger study to further evaluate this technique.

Applications of justification and optimization in medical imaging: examples of clinical guidance for computed tomography use in emergency medicine.

Availability, reliability, and technical improvements have led to continued expansion of computed tomography (CT) imaging. During a CT scan, there is substantially more exposure to ionizing radiation than with conventional radiography. This has led to questions and critical conclusions about whether the continuous growth of CT scans should be subjected to review and potentially restraints or, at a minimum, closer investigation. This is particularly pertinent to populations in emergency departments, such as children and patients who receive repeated CT scans for benign diagnoses. During the last several decades, among national medical specialty organizations, the American College of Emergency Physicians and the American College of Radiology have each formed membership working groups to consider value, access, and expedience and to promote broad acceptance of CT protocols and procedures within their disciplines. Those efforts have had positive effects on the use criteria for CT by other physician groups, health insurance carriers, regulators, and legislators.

Applications of justification and optimization in medical imaging: examples of clinical guidance for computed tomography use in emergency medicine.

Availability, reliability, and technical improvements have led to continued expansion of computed tomography (CT) imaging. During a CT scan, there is substantially more exposure to ionizing radiation than with conventional radiography. This has led to questions and critical conclusions about whether the continuous growth of CT scans should be subjected to review and potentially restraints or, at a minimum, closer investigation. This is particularly pertinent to populations in emergency departments, such as children and patients who receive repeated CT scans for benign diagnoses. During the last several decades, among national medical specialty organizations, the American College of Emergency Physicians and the American College of Radiology have each formed membership working groups to consider value, access, and expedience and to promote broad acceptance of CT protocols and procedures within their disciplines. Those efforts have had positive effects on the use criteria for CT by other physician groups, health insurance carriers, regulators, and legislators.

Assessment of Medicare's imaging efficiency measure for emergency department patients with atraumatic headache.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Computed tomography (CT) use has increased rapidly, raising concerns about radiation exposure and cost. The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) developed an imaging efficiency measure (Outpatient Measure 15 [OP-15]) to evaluate the use of brain CT in the emergency department (ED) for atraumatic headache. We aim to determine the reliability, validity, and accuracy of OP-15. METHODS: This was a retrospective record review at 21 US EDs. We identified 769 patient visits that CMS labeled as including an inappropriate brain CT to identify clinical indications for CT and reviewed the 748 visits with available records. The primary outcome was the reliability of OP-15 as determined by CMS from administrative data compared with medical record review. Secondary outcomes were the measure's validity and accuracy. Outcome measures were defined according to the testing protocol of the American Medical Association's Physician Consortium for Performance Improvement. RESULTS: On record review, 489 of 748 ED brain CTs identified as inappropriate by CMS had a measure exclusion documented that was not identified by administrative data; the measure was 34.6% reliable (95% confidence interval [CI] 31.2% to 38.0%). Among the 259 patient visits without measure exclusions documented in the record, the measure's validity was 47.5% (95% CI 41.4% to 53.6%), according to a consensus list of indications for brain CT. Overall, 623 of the 748 ED visits had either a measure exclusion or a consensus indication for CT; the measure's accuracy was 16.7% (95% CI 14% to 19.4%). Hospital performance as reported by CMS did not correlate with the proportion of CTs with a documented clinical indication (r=-0.11; P=.63). CONCLUSION: The CMS imaging efficiency measure for brain CTs (OP-15) is not reliable, valid, or accurate and may produce misleading information about hospital ED performance.

Summary of workshop on CT in emergency medicine: ensuring appropriate use.

This paper addresses the increasing use of CT in medical radiologic imaging, with a focus on applications in emergency medicine. The rapidly increasing use of CT in medical imaging over the past 3 decades has been a major subject in many recent publications, including a discussion of concerns about patient radiation doses, unnecessary CT examinations, and the costs of CT examinations. One area of these concerns has been the use of CT examinations for triage, selection of treatment options, and release of patients from emergency medical settings. On September 23 and 24, 2009, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements held a workshop on appropriate uses of CT imaging with emergency patients. The workshop was cosponsored by 8 private and government organizations: the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, the American College of Emergency Physicians, the ACR, the American Society of Emergency Radiology, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Landauer, Inc, the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, and the US Environmental Protection Agency. This paper presents a summary of discussions at the workshop and recommendations for important areas of consideration in a subsequent consensus paper to be prepared on clinical guidance for applications of CT in emergency medicine procedures.

The double-line sign: a false positive finding on the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) examination.

BACKGROUND: Emergency physicians commonly perform Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) examinations to evaluate for free intraperitoneal fluid. Many ultrasound findings can be misinterpreted as free fluid, resulting in false-positive FAST examinations. OBJECTIVES: To describe a previously unreported ultrasound finding that can be misinterpreted as free intraperitoneal fluid. CASE REPORT: A 32-year-old man was stabbed in the left upper abdomen. A FAST examination was performed and a right perinephric fat pad was interpreted as showing free fluid in Morison's pouch. After transfer to a trauma center, a repeat FAST examination revealed no signs of intraperitoneal free fluid. Wound exploration showed no signs of penetration into the peritoneal cavity. CONCLUSIONS: When performing a FAST examination, a wedge-shaped hypoechoic area in Morison's pouch that is bounded on both sides by echogenic lines (the "FAST Double-Line Sign") is likely to represent perinephric fat and may result in a false-positive FAST examination.

Prospective durability testing of a vascular access phantom.

INTRODUCTION: We assessed the acoustic transmission, image quality, and vessel integrity of the Blue Phantom™ 2 Vessel Original Ultrasound Training Model with repeated use. METHODS: The study consisted of two phases. During the first phase, a portion of the Blue Phantom™ rubber matrix (without a simulated vessel) was placed over a two-tiered echogenic structure and was repeatedly punctured with a hollow bore 18-gauge needle in a 1 cm(2) area. During the second phase, a portion of the matrix with a simulated vessel was repeatedly punctured with another hollow bore 18-gauge needle. During both phases we obtained an ultrasound image using a high-frequency linear probe after every 100 needle punctures to assess the effect of repeated needle punctures on image quality, acoustic transmission, and simulated vessel integrity. RESULTS: Testing on the rubber matrix alone (first phase) without a vessel demonstrated a gradual decrease in image quality and visualization of the proximal and distal portions of the target structure, but they remained visible after 1,000 needle punctures. The second phase demonstrated excellent acoustic transmission and image quality on both transverse and longitudinal images of the rubber matrix and simulated vessel after 1,000 needle punctures. The anterior and posterior vessel walls and needle tip were well visualized without any signs of vessel leakage on still images or with compression and power Doppler. CONCLUSION: The Blue Phantom™ 2 Vessel Original Ultrasound Training Model demonstrated excellent durability after 1,000 needle punctures in a 1- cm(2) area. Based on the length of simulated vessel in each model, it should support over 25,000 simulated attempts at vascular access.

Unilateral papilledema: a case of optic neuritis diagnosed with bedside ocular sonography.

Optic neuritis is a demyelinating inflammatory condition that causes acute loss of vision, especially color vision, and eye pain. Magnetic resonance imaging and fundoscopy have traditionally aided the diagnosis of what largely remains a clinical diagnosis. We report a case of optic neuritis diagnosed in the emergency department with the aid of bedside ocular sonography. The pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of acute optic neuritis will be reviewed.

Ultrasound diagnosis of penile fracture.

BACKGROUND: Rupture of the corpus cavernosum, penile fracture, is an uncommon occurrence. Diagnosis is straightforward when classical historical and physical examination findings are present. However, atypical presentations can make the diagnosis difficult. OBJECTIVES: Review the literature supporting use of ultrasound for the diagnosis of penile fracture. Review of the ultrasonographic findings in patients with penile fracture. CASE REPORT: A 32-year-old man presented with penile ecchymosis after sex but lacking several historical and physical examination elements for a diagnosis of penile fracture. Ultrasound performed by the treating physician revealed rupture of the tunica albuginea and presence of a hematoma, leading to a diagnosis of penile fracture. CONCLUSION: Ultrasound is a simple, efficient, and non-invasive imaging method to assist in the diagnosis of penile fracture.

Emergency medicine resident performed bedside ultrasonography of the gallbladder in non-fasted healthy volunteers.

BACKGROUND: Gallbladder ultrasonography is a commonly performed test in the emergency department. It is unknown whether a non-fasting state alters the visualization of the gallbladder by emergency medicine (EM) residents. OBJECTIVES: We conducted this study to determine whether EM residents are able to visualize the gallbladder in volunteers who have recently consumed a fatty meal. METHODS: This study used a prospective, single-blinded, randomized controlled design. Initial scans were performed on fasting volunteers. A fatty meal was then consumed. Thirty minutes after eating, a different resident, who was unaware of whether the volunteer had eaten or fasted, performed a second scan. To control for operator bias, 10% of subjects remained fasting between scans. Student's paired-samples t-test, Pearson's chi-squared, and McNemar test were determined as appropriate. RESULTS: A total of 92 scans from 46 volunteers were analyzed. EM residents were able to visualize the gallbladder in all 40 pre-prandial scans (100%) and all 40 post-prandial scans (100%). Gallbladder area as measured in the longitudinal axis decreased 20% from a mean baseline of 11.58 +/- 4.86 cm(2) (95% confidence interval [CI] 11.17-12.98) to 9.2 +/- 5.04 cm(2) (95% CI 7.74-10.66, p = 0.0009) after food intake. Total time to scan for the fasting volunteers (110.2 s, 95% CI 84.34-136) did not change significantly from non-fasting volunteers (129.7 s, 95% CI 110.29-149.01, p = 0.153). CONCLUSIONS: EM residents are able to visualize the gallbladder in non-fasted healthy volunteers.

Transcranial ultrasound in clinical sonothrombolysis (TUCSON) trial.

OBJECTIVE: Microspheres (microS) reach intracranial occlusions and transmit energy momentum from an ultrasound wave to residual flow to promote recanalization. We report a randomized multicenter phase II trial of microS dose escalation with systemic thrombolysis. METHODS: Stroke patients receiving 0.9mg/kg tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) with pretreatment proximal intracranial occlusions on transcranial Doppler (TCD) were randomized (2:1 ratio) to microS (MRX-801) infusion over 90 minutes (Cohort 1, 1.4ml; Cohort 2, 2.8ml) with continuous TCD insonation, whereas controls received tPA and brief TCD assessments. The primary endpoint was symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage (sICH) within 36 hours after tPA. RESULTS: Among 35 patients (Cohort 1 = 12, Cohort 2 = 11, controls = 12) no sICH occurred in Cohort 1 and controls, whereas 3 (27%, 2 fatal) sICHs occurred in Cohort 2 (p = 0.028). Sustained complete recanalization/clinical recovery rates (end of TCD monitoring/3 month) were 67%/75% for Cohort 1, 46%/50% for Cohort 2, and 33%/36% for controls (p = 0.255/0.167). The median time to any recanalization tended to be shorter in Cohort 1 (30 min; interquartile range [IQR], 6) and Cohort 2 (30 min; IQR, 69) compared to controls (60 min; IQR, 5; p = 0.054). Although patients with sICH had similar screening and pretreatment systolic blood pressure (SBP) levels in comparison to the rest, higher SBP levels were documented in sICH+ patients at 30 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes, and 24-36 hours following tPA bolus. INTERPRETATION: Perflutren lipid microS can be safely combined with systemic tPA and ultrasound at a dose of 1.4ml. Safety concerns in the second dose tier may necessitate extended enrollment and further experiments to determine the mechanisms by which microspheres interact with tissues. In both dose tiers, sonothrombolysis with microS and tPA shows a trend toward higher early recanalization and clinical recovery rates compared to standard intravenous tPA therapy. Ann Neurol 2009;66:28-38.

Safety and dose-escalation study design of Transcranial Ultrasound in Clinical SONolysis for acute ischemic stroke: the TUCSON Trial.

Rationale Transcranial Doppler (TCD) monitoring during intravenous tissue plasminogen activator (i.v.-tPA) infusion increases recanalization rates in acute ischemic stroke. Addition of perflutren-lipid microspheres MRX-801 (microS) may further enhance the process of recanalization. This article describes the design of the Transcranial Ultrasound in Clinical SONolysis (TUCSON) trial. Aims and Design TUCSON is a phase I-II, randomized, placebo-controlled, open-label, safety, dose-escalation clinical trial of microS+TCD ultrasound (sonolysis). Patients with acute ischemic stroke and arterial intracranial occlusions are enrolled within 3 h of symptom onset. All patients receive standard i.v.-tPA and will be randomized to 90 min of continuous 2-MHz TCD+microS or 90 min of saline+brief TCD vessel assessments. The safety profile of four escalating dose tiers will be assessed. Arterial occlusions and recanalization are defined with the Thrombolysis in Brain Ischemia flow grades. Study Outcomes Safety is determined by the rates of symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage within 36 h. Neurological deficits and outcomes are measured with the National Institute of Health Stroke Scale and modified Rankin Scale (mRS). The signal-of-efficacy is determined by rates of recanalization, dramatic or early clinical recovery within 2 h, clinical recovery at 24-36 h and independent outcome (mRS 0-2) at 90 days.

Resident training in emergency ultrasound: consensus recommendations from the 2008 Council of Emergency Medicine Residency Directors Conference.

Over the past 25 years, research performed by emergency physicians (EPs) demonstrates that bedside ultrasound (US) can improve the care of emergency department (ED) patients. At the request of the Council of Emergency Medicine Residency Directors (CORD), leaders in the field of emergency medicine (EM) US met to delineate in consensus fashion the model "US curriculum" for EM residency training programs. The goal of this article is to provide a framework for providing US education to EM residents. These guidelines should serve as a foundation for the growth of resident education in EM US. The intent of these guidelines is to provide minimum education standards for all EM residency programs to refer to when establishing an EUS training program. The document focuses on US curriculum, US education, and competency assessment. The use of US in the management of critically ill patients will improve patient care and thus should be viewed as a required skill set for all future graduating EM residents. The authors consider EUS skills critical to the development of an emergency physician, and a minimum skill set should be mandatory for all graduating EM residents. The US education provided to EM residents should be structured to allow residents to incorporate US into daily clinical practice. Image acquisition and interpretation alone are insufficient. The ability to integrate findings with patient care and apply them in a busy clinical environment should be stressed.