The aryl hydrocarbon receptor links integrin signaling to the TGF-ß pathway.

Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive form of intrinsic brain tumor. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß represents a central mediator of the malignant phenotype of these tumors by promoting invasiveness and angiogenesis, maintaining tumor cell stemness and inducing profound immunosuppression. Integrins, which are highly expressed in glioma cells, interact with the TGF-ß pathway. Furthermore, a link has been described between activity of the transcription factor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and TGF-ß expression. Here we demonstrate that integrin inhibition, using αv, ß3 or ß5 neutralizing antibodies, RNA interference-mediated integrin gene silencing or pharmacological inhibition by the cyclic RGD peptide EMD 121974 (cilengitide) or the non-peptidic molecule GLPG0187, inhibits AhR activity. These effects are independent of cell detachment or cell density. While AhR mRNA expression was not affected by integrin inhibition, AhR total and nuclear protein levels were reduced, suggesting that integrin inhibition-mediated regulation of AhR may occur at a post-transcriptional level. AhR-null astrocytes, AhR-null hepatocytes or glioblastoma cells with a transiently silenced AhR gene showed reduced sensitivity to integrin inhibition-mediated alterations in TGF-ß signaling, indicating that AhR mediates integrin control of the TGF-ß pathway. Accordingly, there was a significant correlation of αv integrin levels with nuclear AhR and pSmad2 levels as determined by immunohistochemistry in human glioblastoma in vivo. In summary, this study identifies a signaling network comprising integrins, AhR and TGF-ß and validates integrin inhibition as a promising strategy not only to inhibit angiogenesis, but also to block AhR- and TGF-ß-controlled features of malignancy in human glioblastoma.

Integrin inhibition promotes atypical anoikis in glioma cells.

Integrins regulate cellular adhesion and transmit signals important for cell survival, proliferation and motility. They are expressed by glioma cells and may contribute to their malignant phenotype. Integrin inhibition may therefore represent a promising therapeutic strategy. GL-261 and SMA-560 glioma cells grown under standard conditions uniformly detached and formed large cell clusters after integrin gene silencing or pharmacological inhibition using EMD-121974, a synthetic Arg-Gly-Asp-motif peptide, or GLPG0187, a nonpeptidic integrin inhibitor. After 120 h, the clusters induced by integrin inhibition decayed and cells died. In contrast, when cells were cultured under stem cell (sphere) conditions, no disaggregation became apparent upon integrin inhibition, and cell death was not observed. As poly-HEMA-mediated detachment had similar effects on cell viability as integrin inhibition, we postulated that cell death may result from detachment alone, which was confirmed using various permissive and nonpermissive substrates. No surrogate markers of apoptosis were detected and electron microscopy confirmed that necrosis represents the dominant morphology of detachment-induced cell death. In addition, integrin inhibition resulted in the induction of autophagy that represents a survival signal. When integrins were inhibited in nonsphere glioma cells, the TGF-ß pathway was strongly impaired, whereas no such effect was observed in glioma cells cultured under sphere conditions. Cell death induced by integrin inhibition was rescued by the addition of recombinant transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) and accelerated by exposure to the TGF-ß receptor inhibitor, SD-208. In summary, cell death following integrin inhibition is detachment mediated, represents an atypical form of anoikis involving necrosis as well as autophagy, and is modulated by TGF-ß pathway activity.