RELATIONSHIP OF FEMALE BREASTS TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, EXERCISE AND SPORT - Part 1 / RELAÇÃO DAS MAMAS FEMININAS COM A ATIVIDADE FÍSICA, EXERCÍCIO E ESPORTE - Parte 1 / Relación de las mamas femeninas con la actividad física, el ejercicio y el deporte - parte 1

ABSTRACT Introduction: The women are increasingly seeking to be physically active or even choose sports as their professional activity as in the years, the number of Summer Olympic athletes has equaled that of men. Due to this growing female participation in sports, the study of female and male differences has become increasingly relevant in the involvement of the academic world. Objective: A review on this subject, stimulating more research, and making knowledge reach more women is a major objective of this literature review. We understand that more studies are needed to understand pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment. Methods: The study design was a retrospective narrative review of the relationship between breasts and physical activity, exercise, and sports. Results: Several anthropometric and physiological differences have been established; however, the volume and shape of the female breast is peculiar but still little studied. The specificity of female breasts are conditions that can exert sports performance and contribute to distancing women from physical activity practice. Conclusion: Possible conditions of female breasts in sports are exercise-induced mastalgia, breast injury, nipple injury, pregnancy, and many others. We understand that more studies are needed to understand pathophysiology, prevention, and treatment. Level of Evidence II; Retrospective Narrative Review.

RESUMEN Introducción: Cada vez son más las mujeres que buscan ser físicamente activas e incluso eligen el deporte como actividad profesional, ya que en los últimos años el número de atletas olímpicas de verano ha igualado al de los hombres. Debido a esta creciente participación femenina en el deporte, el estudio de las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres se ha vuelto cada vez más relevante en el ámbito académico. Objetivo: Realizar una revisión sobre este tema, estimular nuevas investigaciones y hacer que el conocimiento llegue a más mujeres constituye el principal objetivo de esta revisión bibliográfica. Métodos: El diseño del estudio fue una revisión narrativa retrospectiva de la relación entre mamas y actividad física, ejercicio y deporte. Resultados: Se han establecido varias diferencias antropométricas y fisiológicas; sin embargo, el volumen y la forma de la mama femenina son peculiares, pero aún poco estudiados. La especificidad de las mamas femeninas es un factor que puede perjudicar el rendimiento deportivo y contribuir a alejar a las mujeres de la actividad física. Conclusión: Las posibles afecciones de las mamas femeninas en el deporte son la mastalgia inducida por el ejercicio, las lesiones mamarias, las lesiones del pezón, el embarazo y muchas otras. Entendemos que se necesitan más estudios para comprender la fisiopatología, la prevención y el tratamiento. Nivel de Evidencia II; Revisión Narrativa Retrospectiva.

RESUMO Introdução: As mulheres estão cada vez mais buscando ser fisicamente ativas e até escolhendo o esporte como sua atividade profissional, pois, nos últimos anos, o número de atletas olímpicas de verão equiparou-se ao dos homens. Devido a essa crescente participação feminina nos esportes, o estudo sobre as diferenças entre homens e mulheres tem se tornado cada vez mais relevante no âmbito acadêmico. Objetivo: Uma revisão sobre esse assunto, estimulando mais pesquisas e fazendo com que o conhecimento chegue a mais mulheres constitui o principal objetivo desta revisão da literatura. Métodos: O desenho do estudo foi uma revisão narrativa retrospectiva da relação entre mamas e atividade física, exercícios e esportes. Resultados: Várias diferenças antropométricas e fisiológicas foram estabelecidas; entretanto, o volume e a forma da mama feminina são peculiares, mas ainda pouco estudados. A especificidade das mamas femininas é um fator que pode prejudicar o desempenho esportivo e contribuir para afastar as mulheres da prática de atividade física. Conclusão: As possíveis condições das mamas femininas no esporte são mastalgia induzida pelo exercício, lesão mamária, lesão do mamilo, gravidez e muitas outras. Entendemos que são necessários mais estudos para compreender a fisiopatologia, a prevenção e o tratamento. Nível de Evidência II; Revisão Narrativa Retrospectiva.

The Cerato-Platanin EPL2 from Trichoderma reesei Is Not Directly Involved in Cellulase Formation but in Cell Wall Remodeling.

Trichoderma reesei is a saprophytic fungus that produces large amounts of cellulases and is widely used for biotechnological applications. Cerato-platanins (CPs) are a family of proteins universally distributed among Dikarya fungi and have been implicated in various functions related to fungal physiology and interaction with the environment. In T. reesei, three CPs are encoded in the genome: Trire2_111449, Trire2_123955, and Trire2_82662. However, their function is not fully elucidated. In this study, we deleted the Trire2_123955 gene (named here as epl2) in the wild-type QM6aΔtmus53Δpyr4 (WT) strain and examined the behavior of the Δepl2 strain compared with WT grown for 72 h in 1% cellulose using RNA sequencing. Of the 9143 genes in the T. reesei genome, 760 were differentially expressed, including 260 only in WT, 214 only in Δepl2, and 286 in both. Genes involved in oxidative stress, oxidoreductase activity, antioxidant activity, and transport were upregulated in the Δepl2 mutant. Genes encoding cell wall synthesis were upregulated in the mutant strain during the late growth stage. The Δepl2 mutant accumulated chitin and glucan at higher levels than the parental strain and was more resistant to cell wall stressors. These results suggest a compensatory effect in cell wall remodeling due to the absence of EPL2 in T. reesei. This study is expected to contribute to a better understanding of the role of the EPL2 protein in T. reesei and improve its application in biotechnological fields.

Characterization of a New Glucose-Tolerant GH1 ß-Glycosidase from Aspergillus fumigatus with Transglycosylation Activity.

Concern over environmental impacts has spurred many efforts to replace fossil fuels with biofuels such as ethanol. However, for this to be possible, it is necessary to invest in other production technologies, such as second generation (2G) ethanol, in order to raise the levels of this product and meet the growing demand. Currently, this type of production is not yet economically feasible, due to the high costs of the enzyme cocktails used in saccharification stage of lignocellulosic biomass. In order to optimize these cocktails, the search for enzymes with superior activities has been the goal of several research groups. For this end, we have characterized the new ß-glycosidase AfBgl1.3 from A. fumigatus after expression and purification in Pichia pastoris X-33. Structural analysis by circular dichroism revealed that increasing temperature destructured the enzyme; the apparent Tm value was 48.5 °C. The percentages of α-helix (36.3%) and ß-sheet (12.4%) secondary structures at 25 °C were predicted. Biochemical characterization suggested that the optimal conditions for AfBgl1.3 were pH 6.0 and temperature of 40 °C. At 30 and 40 °C, the enzyme was stable and retained about 90% and 50% of its activity, respectively, after pre-incubation for 24 h. In addition, the enzyme was highly stable at pH between 5 and 8, retaining over 65% of its activity after pre-incubation for 48 h. AfBgl1.3 co-stimulation with 50-250 mM glucose enhanced its specific activity by 1.4-fold and revealed its high tolerance to glucose (IC50 = 2042 mM). The enzyme was active toward the substrates salicin (495.0 ± 49.0 U mg-1), pNPG (340.5 ± 18.6 U mg-1), cellobiose (89.3 ± 5.1 U mg-1), and lactose (45.1 ± 0.5 U mg-1), so it had broad specificity. The Vmax values were 656.0 ± 17.5, 706.5 ± 23.8, and 132.6 ± 7.1 U mg-1 toward p-nitrophenyl-ß-D-glucopyranoside (pNPG), D-(-)-salicin, and cellobiose, respectively. AfBgl1.3 displayed transglycosylation activity, forming cellotriose from cellobiose. The addition of AfBgl1.3 as a supplement at 0.9 FPU/g of cocktail Celluclast® 1.5L increased carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) conversion to reducing sugars (g L-1) by about 26% after 12 h. Moreover, AfBgl1.3 acted synergistically with other Aspergillus fumigatus cellulases already characterized by our research group-CMC and sugarcane delignified bagasse were degraded, releasing more reducing sugars compared to the control. These results are important in the search for new cellulases and in the optimization of enzyme cocktails for saccharification.

CRZ1 regulator and calcium cooperatively modulate holocellulases gene expression in Trichoderma reesei QM6a.

Trichoderma reesei is the main filamentous fungus used in industry to produce cellulases. Here we investigated the role of CRZ1 and Ca2+signaling in the fungus T. reesei QM6a concerning holocellulases production. For this, we first searched for potential CRZ1 binding sites in promoter regions of key genes coding holocellulases, as well as transcriptional regulators and sugar and calcium transporters. Using a nearly constructed T. reeseiAcrz1 strain, we demonstrated that most of the genes expected to be regulated by CRZ1 were affected in the mutant strain induced with sugarcane bagasse (SCB) and cellulose. In particular, our data demonstrate that Ca2+ acts synergistically with CRZ1 to modulate gene expression, but also exerts CRZ1-independent regulatory role in gene expression in T. reesei, highlighting the role of the major regulator Ca2+ on the signaling for holocellulases transcriptional control in the most part of cellulases genes here investigated. This work presents new evidence on the regulatory role of CRZ1 and Ca2+ sensing in the regulation of cellulolytic enzymes in T. reesei, evidencing significant and previously unknown function of this Ca2+sensing system in the control key transcriptional regulators (XYR1 and CRE1) and on the expression of genes related to sugar and Ca2+ transport.

Diversity and Pathogenicity of Rhizoctonia Species from the Brazilian Cerrado.

Eighty-one Rhizoctonia-like isolates were identified based on morphology and nuclei-staining methods from natural and agricultural soils of the Cerrado (Brazilian savanna). The nucleotide similarity analysis of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions identified 14 different taxa, with 39.5% of isolates assigned to Waitea circinata (zeae, oryzae, and circinata varieties), while 37.0% belonged to Thanatephorus cucumeris anastomosis groups (AGs) AG1-IB, AG1-ID, AG1-IE, AG4-HGI, and AG4-HGIII. Ceratobasidium spp. AG-A, AG-F, AG-Fa, AG-P, and AG-R comprised 23.5%. Rhizoctonia zeae (19.8%), R. solani AG1-IE (18.6%), and binucleate Rhizoctonia AG-A (8.6%) were the most frequent anamorphic states found. Root rot severity caused by the different taxa varied from low to high on common beans, and tended to be low to average in maize. Twenty-two isolates were pathogenic to both hosts, suggesting difficulties in managing Rhizoctonia root rots with crop rotation. These results suggest that cropping history affects the geographical arrangement of AGs, with a prevalence of AG1 in the tropical zone from central to north Brazil while the AG4 group was most prevalent from central to subtropical south. W. circinata var. zeae was predominant in soils under maize production. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the occurrence of W. circinata var. circinata in Brazil.

Identification of differentially expressed genes from Trichoderma harzianum during growth on cell wall of Fusarium solani as a tool for biotechnological application.

BACKGROUND: The species of T. harzianum are well known for their biocontrol activity against many plant pathogens. However, there is a lack of studies concerning its use as a biological control agent against F. solani, a pathogen involved in several crop diseases. In this study, we have used subtractive library hybridization (SSH) and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) techniques in order to explore changes in T. harzianum genes expression during growth on cell wall of F. solani (FSCW) or glucose. RT-qPCR was also used to examine the regulation of 18 genes, potentially involved in biocontrol, during confrontation between T. harzianum and F. solani. RESULTS: Data obtained from two subtractive libraries were compared after annotation using the Blast2GO suite. A total of 417 and 78 readable EST sequence were annotated in the FSCW and glucose libraries, respectively. Functional annotation of these genes identified diverse biological processes and molecular functions required during T. harzianum growth on FSCW or glucose. We identified various genes of biotechnological value encoding to proteins which function such as transporters, hydrolytic activity, adherence, appressorium development and pathogenesis. Fifteen genes were up-regulated and sixteen were down-regulated at least at one-time point during growth of T. harzianum in FSCW. During the confrontation assay most of the genes were up-regulated, mainly after contact, when the interaction has been established. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that T. harzianum expressed different genes when grown on FSCW compared to glucose. It provides insights into the mechanisms of gene expression involved in mycoparasitism of T. harzianum against F. solani. The identification and evaluation of these genes may contribute to the development of an efficient biological control agent.

Anti-inflammatory effect of Spiranthera odoratissima A. St.-Hil. leaves involves reduction of TNF-α.

Spiranthera odoratissima A. St.-Hil., 'manacá', is a medicinal species used in Brazil, especially in central region, for the treatment of several diseases such as pain and inflammation. In this study, the methanol/aqueous phase of the ethanol extract of the leaves of 'manacá' (MAP), at the doses of 50, 150 and 500 mg/kg was used to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and/or antinociceptive effects and the possible anti-inflammatory mechanism. The antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of MAP were assessed using formalin test, carrageenan-induced paw oedema. The myeloperoxidase activity, capillary permeability, leukocyte migration and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) levels were evaluated in pleural exudate. The MAP reduced the licking time only in the later phase of formalin test, and showed anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the paw oedema, migration cell, myeloperoxidase activity, capillary permeability and TNF-α levels. In conclusion, we confirmed the inflammatory activity of MAP and affirm that this effect involves the reduction of TNF-α level.

Influence of N-glycosylation on the morphogenesis and growth of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis and on the biological activities of yeast proteins.

The fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a human pathogen that causes paracoccidioidomycosis, the most prevalent systemic mycosis in Latin America. The cell wall of P. brasiliensis is a network of glycoproteins and polysaccharides, such as chitin, that perform several functions. N-linked glycans are involved in glycoprotein folding, intracellular transport, secretion, and protection from proteolytic degradation. Here, we report the effects of tunicamycin (TM)-mediated inhibition of N-linked glycosylation on P. brasiliensis yeast cells. The underglycosylated yeasts were smaller than their fully glycosylated counterparts and exhibited a drastic reduction of cell budding, reflecting impairment of growth and morphogenesis by TM treatment. The intracellular distribution in TM-treated yeasts of the P. brasiliensis glycoprotein paracoccin was investigated using highly specific antibodies. Paracoccin was observed to accumulate at intracellular locations, far from the yeast wall. Paracoccin derived from TM-treated yeasts retained the ability to bind to laminin despite their underglycosylation. As paracoccin has N-acetyl-ß-d-glucosaminidase (NAGase) activity and induces the production of TNF-α and nitric oxide (NO) by macrophages, we compared these properties between glycosylated and underglycosylated yeast proteins. Paracoccin demonstrated lower NAGase activity when underglycosylated, although no difference was detected between the pH and temperature optimums of the two forms. Murine macrophages stimulated with underglycosylated yeast proteins produced significantly lower levels of TNF-α and NO. Taken together, the impaired growth and morphogenesis of tunicamycin-treated yeasts and the decreased biological activities of underglycosylated fungal components suggest that N-glycans play important roles in P. brasiliensis yeast biology.

Optimized microplate beta-1,3-glucanase assay system for Trichoderma spp. screening.

Beta-1,3-glucanase is an important cell wall-degrading enzyme involved in mycoparasitism by Trichoderma spp. during antagonism against phytopathogenic fungi. A simple microplate-based method to assay beta-1,3-glucanase activity is described here as an alternative to an expensive tube-assay method. The reaction volume of the micro-assay was reduced to 130 microl from the 1150 microl used in the standard beta-1,3-glucanase macro-assay. Statistical analyses showed significant difference in sensitivity between the micro- and the macro-assay. The micro-method was optimized using the Response Surface Quadratic Model. The sensitivity of the optimized micro-method was shown to be four-fold greater than the macro-assay and two-fold higher than the micro-assay. The optimized micro-assay was significantly more sensitive in all of the twenty examined isolates during Trichoderma spp. beta-1,3-glucanase screening. We conclude that this modified and optimized method is more convenient, faster, cheaper and more reproducible than the traditional tube-assay.

Expression analysis of the exo-beta-1,3-glucanase from the mycoparasitic fungus Trichoderma asperellum.

The regulation of the gene encoding the extracellular exo-beta-1,3-glucanase (tag83) produced by the mycoparasite Trichoderma asperellum was studied. Enzyme activity was detected in all carbon sources, but the highest levels were found when starch and purified cell walls from Rhizoctonia solani were used. These results are supported by the appearance of one strong band with enzyme activity in non-denaturing PAGE. Experiments using RT-PCR showed that exo-beta-1,3-glucanase induction in T. asperellum occurred at the transcriptional level. We used RT-PCR and real-time PCR analysis to examine the expression of tag83 gene during in vivo assay of T. asperellum against R. solani. We showed that the expression of tag83 is significantly increased by the presence of R. solani.

The G-alpha protein GNA3 of Hypocrea jecorina (Anamorph Trichoderma reesei) regulates cellulase gene expression in the presence of light.

Although the enzymes enabling Hypocrea jecorina (anamorph Trichoderma reesei) to degrade the insoluble substrate cellulose have been investigated in some detail, little is still known about the mechanism by which cellulose signals its presence to the fungus. In order to investigate the possible role of a G-protein/cyclic AMP signaling pathway, the gene encoding GNA3, which belongs to the adenylate cyclase-activating class III of G-alpha subunits, was cloned. gna3 is clustered in tandem with the mitogen-activated protein kinase gene tmk3 and the glycogen phosphorylase gene gph1. The gna3 transcript is upregulated in the presence of light and is almost absent in the dark. A strain bearing a constitutively activated version of GNA3 (gna3QL) exhibits strongly increased cellulase transcription in the presence of the inducer cellulose and in the presence of light, whereas a gna3 antisense strain showed delayed cellulase transcription under this condition. However, the gna3QL mutant strain was unable to form cellulases in the absence of cellulose. The necessity of light for stimulation of cellulase transcription by GNA3 could not be overcome in a mutant which expressed gna3 under control of the constitutive gpd1 promoter also in darkness. We conclude that the previously reported stimulation of cellulase gene transcription by light, but not the direct transmission of the cellulose signal, involves the function and activation of GNA3. The upregulation of gna3 by light is influenced by the light modulator ENVOY, but GNA3 itself has no effect on transcription of the light regulator genes blr1, blr2, and env1. Our data for the first time imply an involvement of a G-alpha subunit in a light-dependent signaling event in fungi.

Mycoparasitism studies of Trichoderma harzianum strains against Rhizoctonia solani: evaluation of coiling and hydrolytic enzyme production.

The genus Trichoderma is a potential biocontrol agent against several phytopathogenic fungi. One parameter for its successful use is an efficient coiling process followed by a substantial production of hydrolytic enzymes. The interaction between fifteen isolates of Trichoderma harzianum and the soil-borne plant pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani, was studied by light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Macroscopic observations of fungal growth in dual cultures revealed that growth inhibition of the pathogen occurred soon after contact with the antagonist. All T. harzianum isolates tested exhibited coiling around the hyphae of R. solani. The strains ALL23, ALL40, ALL41, ALL43 and ALL49 did not differ in coiling frequency and gave equal coiling performances. No correlation between coiling frequency and the production of cell wall-degrading chitinases, N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminidase and beta-1,3-glucanases, was found.