Pgc-1α overexpression downregulates Pitx3 and increases susceptibility to MPTP toxicity associated with decreased Bdnf.

Multiple mechanisms likely contribute to neuronal death in Parkinson's disease (PD), including mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator-1 alpha (PGC-1α) positively regulates the expression of genes required for mitochondrial biogenesis and the cell's antioxidant responses. Also, expression of PGC-1α-regulated genes is low in substantia nigra (SN) neurons in early PD. Thus upregulation of PGC-1α is a candidate neuroprotective strategy in PD. Here, an adeno-associated virus (AAV) was used to induce unilateral overexpression of Pgc-1α, or a control gene, in the SN of wild-type C57BL/6CR mice. Three weeks after AAV administration, mice were treated with saline or MPTP. Overexpression of Pgc-1α in the SN induced expression of target genes, but unexpectedly it also greatly reduced the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (Th) and other markers of the dopaminergic phenotype with resultant severe loss of striatal dopamine. Reduced Th expression was associated with loss of Pitx3, a transcription factor that is critical for the development and maintenance of dopaminergic cells. Expression of the neurotrophic factor Bdnf, which also is regulated by Pitx3, similarly was reduced. Overexpression of Pgc-1α also led to increased sensitivity to MPTP-induced death of Th+ neurons. Pgc-1α overexpression alone, in the absence of MPTP treatment, did not lead to cell loss in the SN or to loss of dopaminergic terminals. These data demonstrate that overexpression of Pgc-1α results in dopamine depletion associated with lower levels of Pitx3 and enhances susceptibility to MPTP. These data may have ramifications for neuroprotective strategies targeting overexpression of PGC-1α in PD.

NR4A orphan nuclear receptors as mediators of CREB-dependent neuroprotection.

Induced expression of neuroprotective genes is essential for maintaining neuronal integrity after stressful insults to the brain. Here we show that NR4A nuclear orphan receptors are induced after excitotoxic and oxidative stress in neurons, up-regulate neuroprotective genes, and increase neuronal survival. Moreover, we show that NR4A proteins are induced by cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) in neurons exposed to stressful insults and that they function as mediators of CREB-induced neuronal survival. Animals with null mutations in three of six NR4A alleles show increased oxidative damage, blunted induction of neuroprotective genes, and increased vulnerability in the hippocampus after treatment with kainic acid. We also demonstrate that NR4A and the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1alpha independently regulate distinct CREB-dependent neuroprotective gene programs. These data identify NR4A nuclear orphan receptors as essential mediators of neuroprotection after exposure to neuropathological stress.

Regression of drug-resistant lung cancer by the combination of rosiglitazone and carboplatin.

PURPOSE: Current therapy for lung cancer involves multimodality therapies. However, many patients are either refractory to therapy or develop drug resistance. KRAS and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations represent some of the most common mutations in lung cancer, and many studies have shown the importance of these mutations in both carcinogenesis and chemoresistance. Genetically engineered murine models of mutant EGFR and KRAS have been developed that more accurately recapitulate human lung cancer. Recently, using cell-based experiments, we showed that platinum-based drugs and the antidiabetic drug rosiglitazone (PPARgamma ligand) interact synergistically to reduce cancer cell and tumor growth. Here, we directly determined the efficacy of the PPARgamma/carboplatin combination in these more relevant models of drug resistant non-small cell lung cancer. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Tumorigenesis was induced by activation of either mutant KRAS or EGFR. Mice then received either rosiglitazone or carboplatin monotherapy, or a combination of both drugs. Change in tumor burden, pathology, and evidence of apoptosis and cell growth were assessed. RESULTS: Tumor burden remained unchanged or increased in the mice after monotherapy with either rosiglitazone or carboplatin. In striking contrast, we observed significant tumor shrinkage in mice treated with these drugs in combination. Immunohistochemical analyses showed that this synergy was mediated via both increased apoptosis and decreased proliferation. Importantly, this synergy between carboplatin and rosiglitazone did not increase systemic toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that the PPARgamma ligand/carboplatin combination is a new therapy worthy of clinical investigation in lung cancers, including those cancers that show primary resistance to platinum therapy or acquired resistance to targeted therapy.

Suppression of reactive oxygen species and neurodegeneration by the PGC-1 transcriptional coactivators.

PPARgamma coactivator 1alpha (PGC-1alpha) is a potent stimulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and respiration. Since the mitochondrial electron transport chain is the main producer of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in most cells, we examined the effect of PGC-1alpha on the metabolism of ROS. PGC-1alpha is coinduced with several key ROS-detoxifying enzymes upon treatment of cells with an oxidative stressor; studies with RNAi or null cells indicate that PGC-1alpha is required for the induction of many ROS-detoxifying enzymes, including GPx1 and SOD2. PGC-1alpha null mice are much more sensitive to the neurodegenerative effects of MPTP and kainic acid, oxidative stressors affecting the substantia nigra and hippocampus, respectively. Increasing PGC-1alpha levels dramatically protects neural cells in culture from oxidative-stressor-mediated death. These studies reveal that PGC-1alpha is a broad and powerful regulator of ROS metabolism, providing a potential target for the therapeutic manipulation of these important endogenous toxins.

Genes for small, noncoding RNAs under sporulation control in Bacillus subtilis.

The process of sporulation in the bacterium Bacillus subtilis is known to involve the programmed activation of several hundred protein-coding genes. Here we report the discovery of previously unrecognized genes under sporulation control that specify small, non-protein-coding RNAs (sRNAs). Genes for sRNAs were identified by transcriptional profiling with a microarray bearing probes for intergenic regions in the genome and by use of a comparative genomics algorithm that predicts regions of conserved RNA secondary structure. The gene for one such sRNA, SurA, which is located in the region between yndK and yndL, was induced at the start of development under the indirect control of the master regulator for entry into sporulation, Spo0A. The gene for a second sRNA, SurC, located in the region between dnaJ and dnaK, was switched on at a late stage of sporulation by the RNA polymerase sigma factor sigmaK, which directs gene transcription in the mother cell compartment of the developing sporangium. Finally, a third intergenic region, that between polC and ylxS, which specified several sRNAs, including two transcripts produced under the control of the forespore-specific sigma factor sigmaG and a third transcript generated by sigmaK, was identified. Our results indicate that the full repertoire of sporulation-specific gene expression involves the activation of multiple genes for small, noncoding RNAs.

Small untranslated RNA antitoxin in Bacillus subtilis.

Toxin-antitoxin (TA) modules are pairs of genes in which one member encodes a toxin that is neutralized or whose synthesis is prevented by the action of the product of the second gene, an antitoxin, which is either protein or RNA. We now report the identification of a TA module in the chromosome of Bacillus subtilis in which the antitoxin is an antisense RNA. The antitoxin, which is called RatA (for RNA antitoxin A), is a small (222 nucleotides), untranslated RNA that blocks the accumulation of the mRNA for a toxic peptide TxpA (for toxic peptide A; formerly YqdB). The txpA and ratA genes are in convergent orientation and overlap by ca. 75 nucleotides, such that the 3' region of ratA is complementary to the 3' region of txpA. Deletion of ratA led to increased levels of txpA mRNA and lysis of the cells. Overexpression of txpA also caused cell lysis and death, a phenotype that was prevented by simultaneous overexpression of ratA. We propose that the ratA transcript is an antisense RNA that anneals to the 3' end of the txpA mRNA, thereby triggering its degradation.

Unmasking novel sporulation genes in Bacillus subtilis.

The Bacillus subtilis transcription factor sigma(E) directs the expression of a regulon of 262 genes, but null mutations in only a small fraction of these genes severely impair sporulation. We have previously reported that mutations in seven sigma(E)-controlled genes cause a mild (2- to 10-fold) defect in sporulation. In this study, we found that pairwise combinations of some of these seven mutations led to strong synthetic sporulation phenotypes, especially those involving the ytrHI operon and ybaN. Double mutants of ybaN and ytrH and of ybaN and ytrI had >10,000-fold lower sporulation efficiencies than the wild type. Thin-section electron microscopy revealed a block in cortex formation for the ybaN ytrH double mutant and coat defects for the ybaN single and ybaN ytrI double mutants. Sporulating cells of a ybaN ytrI double mutant and of a ybaN ytrHI triple mutant exhibited a pronounced loss of dipicolinic acid (DPA) between hours 8 and 24 of sporulation, in contrast to the constant levels seen for the wild type. An analysis of the spore cortex peptidoglycans of the ybaN ytrI and ybaN ytrHI mutants showed striking decreases in the levels of total muramic acid by hour 24 of sporulation. These data, along with the loss of DPA in the mutants, suggest that the developing spores were unstable and that the cortex underwent degradation late in sporulation. The existence of otherwise hidden sporulation pathways indicates that functional redundancy may mask the role of hitherto unrecognized sporulation genes.

The sigmaE regulon and the identification of additional sporulation genes in Bacillus subtilis.

We report the identification and characterization on a genome-wide basis of genes under the control of the developmental transcription factor sigma(E) in Bacillus subtilis. The sigma(E) factor governs gene expression in the larger of the two cellular compartments (the mother cell) created by polar division during the developmental process of sporulation. Using transcriptional profiling and bioinformatics we show that 253 genes (organized in 157 operons) appear to be controlled by sigma(E). Among these, 181 genes (organized in 121 operons) had not been previously described as members of this regulon. Promoters for many of the newly identified genes were located by transcription start site mapping. To assess the role of these genes in sporulation, we created null mutations in 98 of the newly identified genes and operons. Of the resulting mutants, 12 (in prkA, ybaN, yhbH, ykvV, ylbJ, ypjB, yqfC, yqfD, ytrH, ytrI, ytvI and yunB) exhibited defects in spore formation. In addition, subcellular localization studies were carried out using in-frame fusions of several of the genes to the coding sequence for GFP. A majority of the fusion proteins localized either to the membrane surrounding the developing spore or to specific layers of the spore coat, although some fusions showed a uniform distribution in the mother cell cytoplasm. Finally, we used comparative genomics to determine that 46 of the sigma(E)-controlled genes in B.subtilis were present in all of the Gram-positive endospore-forming bacteria whose genome has been sequenced, but absent from the genome of the closely related but not endospore-forming bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, thereby defining a core of conserved sporulation genes of probable common ancestral origin. Our findings set the stage for a comprehensive understanding of the contribution of a cell-specific transcription factor to development and morphogenesis.