The role of Cas8 in type I CRISPR interference.

CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat) systems provide bacteria and archaea with adaptive immunity to repel invasive genetic elements. Type I systems use 'cascade' [CRISPR-associated (Cas) complex for antiviral defence] ribonucleoprotein complexes to target invader DNA, by base pairing CRISPR RNA (crRNA) to protospacers. Cascade identifies PAMs (protospacer adjacent motifs) on invader DNA, triggering R-loop formation and subsequent DNA degradation by Cas3. Cas8 is a candidate PAM recognition factor in some cascades. We analysed Cas8 homologues from type IB CRISPR systems in archaea Haloferax volcanii (Hvo) and Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus (Mth). Cas8 was essential for CRISPR interference in Hvo and purified Mth Cas8 protein responded to PAM sequence when binding to nucleic acids. Cas8 interacted physically with Cas5-Cas7-crRNA complex, stimulating binding to PAM containing substrates. Mutation of conserved Cas8 amino acid residues abolished interference in vivo and altered catalytic activity of Cas8 protein in vitro. This is experimental evidence that Cas8 is important for targeting Cascade to invader DNA.

Human hypertension caused by mutations in WNK kinases.

Hypertension is a major public health problem of largely unknown cause. Here, we identify two genes causing pseudohypoaldosteronism type II, a Mendelian trait featuring hypertension, increased renal salt reabsorption, and impaired K+ and H+ excretion. Both genes encode members of the WNK family of serine-threonine kinases. Disease-causing mutations in WNK1 are large intronic deletions that increase WNK1 expression. The mutations in WNK4 are missense, which cluster in a short, highly conserved segment of the encoded protein. Both proteins localize to the distal nephron, a kidney segment involved in salt, K+, and pH homeostasis. WNK1 is cytoplasmic, whereas WNK4 localizes to tight junctions. The WNK kinases and their associated signaling pathway(s) may offer new targets for the development of antihypertensive drugs.

Mutations in the Na-Cl cotransporter reduce blood pressure in humans.

The relationship between salt homeostasis and blood pressure has remained difficult to establish from epidemiological studies of the general population. Recently, mendelian forms of hypertension have demonstrated that mutations that increase renal salt balance lead to higher blood pressure, suggesting that mutations that decrease the net salt balance might have the converse effect. Gitelman's syndrome, caused by loss of function mutations in the Na-Cl cotransporter of the distal convoluted tubule (NCCT), features inherited hypokalemic alkalosis with so-called "normal" blood pressure. We hypothesized that the mild salt wasting of Gitelman's syndrome results in reduced blood pressure and protection from hypertension. We have formally addressed this question through the study of 199 members of a large Amish kindred with Gitelman's syndrome. Through genetic testing, family members were identified as inheriting 0 (n=60), 1 (n=113), or 2 (n=26) mutations in NCCT, permitting an unbiased assessment of the clinical consequences of inheriting these mutations by comparison of the phenotypes of relatives with contrasting genotypes. The results demonstrate high penetrance of hypokalemic alkalosis, hypomagnesemia, and hypocalciuria in patients inheriting 2 mutant NCCT alleles. In addition, the NCCT genotype was a significant predictor of blood pressure, with homozygous mutant family members having significantly lower age- and gender-adjusted systolic and diastolic blood pressures than those of their wild-type relatives. Moreover, both homozygote and heterozygote subjects had significantly higher 24-hour urinary Na(+) than did wild-type subjects, reflecting a self-selected higher salt intake. Finally, heterozygous children, but not adults, had significantly lower blood pressures than those of the wild-type relatives. These findings provide formal demonstration that inherited mutations that impair renal salt handling lower blood pressure in humans.

Gitelman's syndrome revisited: an evaluation of symptoms and health-related quality of life.

BACKGROUND: Gitelman's syndrome (GS), also called Gitelman's variant of Bartter's syndrome, is an autosomal recessive renal disorder characterized by hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, metabolic alkalosis, and hypocalciuria. GS is caused by inactivating mutations in the thiazide-sensitive sodium chloride cotransporter gene (NCCT). It is also known as the "milder" form of Bartter's syndrome, as patients with GS are usually diagnosed in adulthood during routine investigation. Symptoms reported in the literature range from asymptomatic, to mild symptoms of cramps and fatigue, to severe manifestations such as tetany, paralysis, and rhabdomyolysis. This is the first systematic evaluation of a large group of patients with genetically defined GS. METHODS: We evaluated the symptoms and quality of life (QOL) in 50 adult GS patients with confirmed mutations in NCCT, using a standardized questionnaire. This cohort was compared with 25 age- and sex-matched controls. RESULTS: GS patients were significantly more symptomatic than controls. The most common symptoms were salt craving, with musculoskeletal symptoms such as cramps, muscle weakness, and aches and constitutional symptoms such as fatigue, generalized weakness and dizziness, and nocturia and polydipsia. Forty-five percent of GS patients consider their symptoms a moderate to big problem. Measures of health-related QOL were significantly lower in GS patients compared with controls, particularly in terms of role limitations caused by physical health, emotion, level of energy, and general health perception. CONCLUSIONS: This descriptive study indicates that GS is not an asymptomatic disease and adversely affects QOL in these patients. Further studies are needed to assess the impact of therapy on symptoms and QOL.

Bartter syndrome and focal segmental glomerulosclerosis: a possible link between two diseases.

We describe a patient with signs and symptoms of classic Bartter syndrome. The patient tested negative for all known genetic abnormalities associated with this tubular disorder. Proteinuria was found within 1 year after the diagnosis of Bartter syndrome. A renal biopsy performed 6 months later, when her kidney function was normal, revealed focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). We propose a link between stimulation of the renin-angiotensin system and sclerotic changes in the glomerulus. This lesion may explain previous reports of kidney failure in patients with Bartter syndrome.

Paracellin-1, a renal tight junction protein required for paracellular Mg2+ resorption.

Epithelia permit selective and regulated flux from apical to basolateral surfaces by transcellular passage through cells or paracellular flux between cells. Tight junctions constitute the barrier to paracellular conductance; however, little is known about the specific molecules that mediate paracellular permeabilities. Renal magnesium ion (Mg2+) resorption occurs predominantly through a paracellular conductance in the thick ascending limb of Henle (TAL). Here, positional cloning has identified a human gene, paracellin-1 (PCLN-1), mutations in which cause renal Mg2+ wasting. PCLN-1 is located in tight junctions of the TAL and is related to the claudin family of tight junction proteins. These findings provide insight into Mg2+ homeostasis, demonstrate the role of a tight junction protein in human disease, and identify an essential component of a selective paracellular conductance.

Mutations in Na(K)Cl transporters in Gitelman's and Bartter's syndromes.

The successful merging of modern molecular genetics with basic renal physiology is exemplified by the recent description of the molecular basis of two classic diseases of clinical nephrology; Bartter's and Gitelman's syndromes of inherited hypokalemic alkalosis. Mutations in four different genes have been identified, each of which causes hypokalemic alkalosis, salt wasting and hypotension. These genetic studies have greatly advanced our understanding of renal physiology.

Ion transporter mutations in Gitelman's and Bartter's syndromes.

The application of modern techniques in molecular genetics to classic diseases in clinical nephrology is highlighted by the recent description of the molecular basis of Bartter's and Gitelman's syndromes. A series of detailed studies are described that have resulted in the identification of specific mutations in four different genes, each of which causes hypokalemic alkalosis, salt wasting and hypotension. The importance of these genetic studies in understanding renal physiology and the regulation of blood pressure, and in developing new therapeutic strategies is discussed.

Mutations in the chloride channel gene, CLCNKB, cause Bartter's syndrome type III.

Analysis of patients with inherited hypokalaemic alkalosis resulting from salt-wasting has proved fertile ground for identification of essential elements of renal salt homeostasis and blood-pressure regulation. We now demonstrate linkage of this phenotype to a segment of chromosome 1 containing the gene encoding a renal chloride channel, CLCNKB. Examination of this gene reveals loss-of-function mutations that impair renal chloride reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop. Mutations in seventeen kindreds have been identified, and they include large deletions and nonsense and missense mutations. Some of the deletions are shown to have arisen by unequal crossing over between CLCNKB and the nearby related gene, CLCNKA. Patients who harbour CLCNKB mutations are characterized by hypokalaemic alkalosis with salt-wasting, low blood pressure, normal magnesium and hyper- or normocalciuria; they define a distinct subset of patients with Bartter's syndrome in whom nephrocalcinosis is absent. These findings demonstrate the critical role of CLCNKB in renal salt reabsorption and blood-pressure homeostasis, and demonstrate the potential role of specific CLCNKB antagonists as diuretic antihypertensive agents.

Multilocus linkage of familial hyperkalaemia and hypertension, pseudohypoaldosteronism type II, to chromosomes 1q31-42 and 17p11-q21.

Essential hypertension is a common multifactorial trait. The molecular basis of a number of rare diseases that after blood pressure in humans has been established, identifying pathways that may be involved in more common forms of hypertension. Pseudohypoaldosteronism type II (PHAII, also known as familial hyperkalaemia and hypertension or Gordon's syndrome; OMIM #145260), is characterized by hyperkalaemia despite normal renal glomerular filtration, hypertension and correction of physiologic abnormalities by thiazide diuretics. Mild hyperchloremia, metabolic acidosis and suppressed plasma renin activity are variable associated findings. The pathogenesis of PHAII is unknown, although clinical studies indicate an abnormality in renal ion transport. As thiazide diuretics are among the most efficacious agents in the treatment of essential hypertension, understanding the pathogenesis of PHAII may be of relevance to more common forms of hypertension. Analysis of linkage in eight PHAII families showing autosomal dominant transmission demonstrates locus heterogeneity of this trait, with a multilocus lod score of 8.1 for linkage of PHAII to chromosomes 1q31-q42 and 17p11-q21. Interestingly, the chromosome-17 locus overlaps a syntenic interval in rat that contains a blood pressure quantitative trait locus (QTL). Our findings provide a first step toward identification of the molecular basis of PHAII.

The molecular basis of inherited hypokalemic alkalosis: Bartter's and Gitelman's syndromes.

Hypokalemic alkalosis with low blood pressure can be caused by a number of medications or alternatively as an autosomal recessive genetic trait. Molecular genetic approaches to this problem have recently demonstrated that mutations in genes encoding the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter or the bumetanide-sensitive Na-K-2Cl cotransporter produce two distinctive clinical and physiological pictures featuring hypokalemic alkalosis. Mutations in the latter cause a phenotypic picture called Bartter's syndrome that includes marked hypercalciuria and neonatal presentation with marked intravascular volume depletion. Mutations in the former cotransporter result in Gitelman's syndrome, which includes hypocalciuria, hypomagnesemia, and typically older clinical presentation with predominant muscular signs and symptoms. These findings establish the molecular basis of these disorders and indicate that the diverse abnormalities seen in affected patients derive from primary defects in these mediators of cotransport function. Moreover, these findings have implications for normal mechanisms of renal electrolyte homeostasis and for potential phenotypic effects in the more common heterozygous carriers of these mutations.

Genetic heterogeneity of Bartter's syndrome revealed by mutations in the K+ channel, ROMK.

Mutations in the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter (NKCC2), a mediator of renal salt reabsorption, cause Bartter's syndrome, featuring salt wasting, hypokalaemic alkalosis, hypercalciuria and low blood pressure. NKCC2 mutations can be excluded in some Bartter's kindreds, prompting examination of regulators of cotransporter activity. One regulator is believed to be ROMK, an ATP-sensitive K+ channel that 'recycles' reabsorbed K+ back to the tubule lumen. Examination of the ROMK gene reveals mutations that co-segregate with the disease and disrupt ROMK function in four Bartter's kindreds. Our findings establish the genetic heterogeneity of Bartter's syndrome, and demonstrate the physiologic role of ROMK in vivo.

Bartter's syndrome, hypokalaemic alkalosis with hypercalciuria, is caused by mutations in the Na-K-2Cl cotransporter NKCC2.

Inherited hypokalaemic alkalosis with low blood pressure can be divided into two groups-Gitelman's syndrome, featuring hypocalciuria, hypomagnesaemia and milder clinical manifestations, and Bartter's syndrome, featuring hypercalciuria and early presentation with severe volume depletion. Mutations in the renal Na-Cl cotransporter have been shown to cause Gitelman's syndrome. We demonstrate linkage of Bartter's syndrome to the renal Na-K-2Cl cotransporter gene NKCC2, and identify frameshift or non-conservative missense mutations for this gene that co-segregate with the disease. These findings demonstrate the molecular basis of Bartter's syndrome, provide the basis for molecular classification of patients with inherited hypokalaemic alkalosis, and suggest potential phenotypes in heterozygous carriers of NKCC2 mutations.

Gitelman's variant of Bartter's syndrome, inherited hypokalaemic alkalosis, is caused by mutations in the thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter.

Maintenance of fluid and electrolyte homeostasis is critical for normal neuromuscular function. Bartter's syndrome is an autosomal recessive disease characterized by diverse abnormalities in electrolyte homeostasis including hypokalaemic metabolic alkalosis; Gitelman's syndrome represents the predominant subset of Bartter's patients having hypomagnesemia and hypocalciuria. We now demonstrate complete linkage of Gitelman's syndrome to the locus encoding the renal thiazide-sensitive Na-Cl cotransporter, and identify a wide variety of non-conservative mutations, consistent with loss of function alleles, in affected subjects. These findings demonstrate the molecular basis of Gitelman's syndrome. We speculate that these mutant alleles lead to reduced sodium chloride reabsorption in the more common heterozygotes, potentially protecting against development of hypertension.

Neuropsychological findings in myotonic dystrophy.

Although the literature contains several references to clinically apparent cognitive deficits in patients with myotonic dystrophy (MYD), efforts to support these observations with formal testing have been lacking. The current study compared 17 MYD patients with 25 normal controls on an expanded Halstead-Reitan Battery. The MYD group scored worse than the controls on nearly every neuropsychological measure. Significant neuropsychological impairment was present even when tests of motor skills were excluded. There was no relationship between general neuropsychological impairment and degree of weakness, myotonia, or muscle atrophy in the MYD patients. These findings suggest that cognitive impairment can be an important and relatively independent component of the disability in MYD, which should be considered in the clinical evaluation and counselling of persons with this disease.