Effects of epigenetic modifier on the developmental competence and quantitative expression of genes in male and female buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) cloned embryos.

Adult male and female Murrah buffalo fibroblast cells were used as donors for the production of embryos using handmade cloning. Both donor cells and reconstructed embryos were treated with 50 nM trichostatin-A (TSA) and 7.5 nM 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC). The blastocyst rate of both treated male (40.1% ± 2.05) and female (37.0% ± 0.83) embryos was significantly lower than in untreated control males (49.7% ± 3.80) and females (47.2% ± 2.44) but their apoptotic index was lower (male, control: 5.90 ± 0.48; treated: 4.96 ± 0.31): (female, control: 8.11 ± 0.67; treated: 6.65 ± 0.43) and epigenetic status in terms of global acetylation and methylation of histone was significantly improved. The expression level of hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) was higher (P < 0.05) and that of PGK, G6PD, OCT 4, IFN-tau and CASPASE3 was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in treated male blastocyst than control and the expression levels of DNMT1, IGF1R and BCL-XL were not significantly different between the two groups. In the female embryos, the relative mRNA abundance of OCT4 was significantly higher (P < 0.05), and that of XIST and CASPASE3 was significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the epigenetic modifier-treated group compared with that of the control group, whereas the expression levels of HPRT, PGK, G6PD, DNMT1, IFN-tau, IGF1R and BCL-XL were not significantly different between the two groups. In both embryos, a similar effect of treatment was observed on genes related to growth and development, but the effect on the expression of X-linked genes varied. These results indicate that not all X-linked genes respond to TSA and 5-aza-dC treatment in the same manner.

Comparison the effects of 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine and zebularine on the in vitro development, blastocyst quality, methylation pattern and conception rate on handmade cloned buffalo embryos.

In this study we treated the handmade cloned (HMC) buffalo embryos with the DNA methylation inhibitors; 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (AzadC) or Zebularine individually after post-fusion and during in vitro culture till eighth day. The blastocysts production rate significantly improved (p < .01) after treating embryos independently with 5 nM AzadC and 5 nM zebularine compared with 2 and 10 nM AzadC or zebularine groups, respectively. The highest cleavage rates were obtained for 5 nM treatment of AzadC and zebularine compared with other treatments and untreated control group. Quality of blastocysts were evaluated using total cell number (TCN) and the ratio of number of inner cell mass (ICM) cells/total cell number (ICM/TCN). Zebularine treatments (2/5/10 nM) significantly improved both TCN and ICM/TCN ratio compared with AzadC treatments (2/5/10 nM); however, control group TCN and ICM/TCN ratio was found lower. The methylation percentage of pDS4.1 and B. bubalis satellite DNA were comparatively more attenuated with 5 nM zebularine than 5 nM AzadC treatment. The increased in vitro development rates of the treated embryos were correlated with the decreased level of DNA methylation and the improved blastocyst quality. Following transfer of 5 nM zebularine treated embryos to 6 recipients, 4 were found to be pregnant, though the pregnancies were not carried to full term.

Development of homologous hemizona assay as a potential predictor of fertility in buffalo bulls: A preliminary approach.

Although, myriads of tests are routinely used, no single test can accurately predict fertilization potential of semen. The hemizona assay (HZA) has advantages in two ways: (a) it determines multitude traits of sperm and (b) it is a controlled sperm function test. In the present study, we developed homologous HZA in buffaloes to predict bull fertility. In this experiment, bulls with fertility rate 53.3% and 48.5% were used as control, whereas bulls with fertility rate 32.6% and 32.2% were used as test semen samples. For HZA, matching buffalo hemizonae were co-incubated with processed buffalo sperm for 4 h. The number of sperms bound to the outer surface of hemizona was determined. No significant difference was observed in sperm binding for co-incubation of same bull sperm with matching hemizona (p < .05). Significant difference in sperm binding to matching hemizona was seen, while two halves were incubated with control and test semen, respectively (p < .05). Hemizona assay index (HZAI) of test bull semen has been determined from percentage of test-sperm bound to the matching hemizona in comparison to control-sperm. For finding relation, HZAI was correlated with respective fertility rates of semen samples, and it was found that a significant positive correlation was present with r = 0.83, p < .1. A regression equation of Y = 1.39X - 55.8 (where Y = pregnancy rate of test semen sample and X = HZAI of test semen sample) was presented to predict fertility rates of unknown semen samples. Thus, HZA can be used as a potential predictor of buffalo bull fertility.

Exposure to Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields Improves the Developmental Competence and Quality of Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Embryos Produced Using Fibroblast Cells and Alters Their Epigenetic Status and Gene Expression.

We examined the effects of treatment with pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) on cumulus cells and buffalo somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) embryos. PEMF treatment (30 µT for 3 hours) of cumulus cells increased (p < 0.05) the relative cell viability and cell proliferation and the expression level of OCT4, NANOG, SOX2, P53, CCNB1, and GPX, but decreased (p < 0.05) that of DNMT1, DNMT3a, GSK3b, and BAX, whereas the expression level of DNMT3b, GLUT1, BCL2, CASPASE3, SOD1, and CATALASE was not affected. PEMF treatment of SCNT embryos at the beginning of in vitro culture increased (p < 0.05) the blastocyst rate (51.4% ± 1.36% vs. 42.8% ± 1.29%) and decreased (p < 0.01) the apoptotic index to the level in in vitro fertilization blastocysts, but did not significantly alter the total cell number and the inner cell mass:trophectoderm cell number ratio of blastocysts compared to the controls. PEMF treatment increased the expression level of NANOG, SOX2, CDX2, GLUT1, P53, and BCL2 and decreased that of BAX, CASPASE3, GSK3b, and HSP70, but not OCT4, DNMT1, DNMT3a, DNMT3b, HDAC1, and CCNB1 in blastocysts. It increased (p < 0.001) the global level of H3K27me3 but not H3K18ac. These results suggest that PEMF treatment of SCNT embryos improves their developmental competence, reduces the level of apoptosis, and alters the expression level of several important genes related to pluripotency, apoptosis, metabolism, and stress.

Production of Transgenic Handmade Cloned Goat (Capra hircus) Embryos by Targeted Integration into Rosa 26 Locus Using Transcription Activator-like Effector Nucleases.

Transgenic goats are ideal bioreactors for the production of therapeutic proteins in their mammary glands. However, random integration of the transgene within-host genome often culminates in unstable expression and unpredictable phenotypes. Targeting desired genes to a safe locus in the goat genome using advanced targeted genome-editing tools, such as transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) might assist in overcoming these hurdles. We identified Rosa 26 locus, a safe harbor for transgene integration, on chromosome 22 in the goat genome for the first time. We further demonstrate that TALEN-mediated targeting of GFP gene cassette at Rosa 26 locus exhibited stable and ubiquitous expression of GFP gene in goat fetal fibroblasts (GFFs) and after that, transgenic cloned embryos generated by handmade cloning (HMC). The transfection of GFFs by the TALEN pair resulted in 13.30% indel frequency at the target site. Upon cotransfection with TALEN and donor vectors, four correctly targeted cell colonies were obtained and all of them showed monoallelic gene insertions. The blastocyst rate for transgenic cloned embryos (3.92% ± 1.12%) was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than cloned embryos (7.84% ± 0.68%) used as control. Concomitantly, 2 out of 15 embryos of morulae and blastocyst stage (13.30%) exhibited site-specific integration. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates TALEN-mediated transgene integration at Rosa 26 locus in caprine fetal fibroblasts and the generation of transgenic cloned embryos using HMC.

Effect of basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) on cumulus cell expansion, in vitro embryo production and gene expression in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of different concentration of FGF2 viz. 5 ng (T1), 10 ng (T2), and 20 ng/mL (T3) on cumulus cell expansion, oocyte maturation, in vitro embryo production, total cell number (TCN) of the blastocyst, and expression of the FGF2 and FGFR2 transcripts in buffalo oocytes and the embryos. Results showed that the effect of FGF2 on the diameter of buffalo COC was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the T1 group than the other groups at 24h of maturation. The maturation and cleavage rate of oocytes was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the T3 group than the control, however, the values did not different (P> 0.05) from other groups. The effect of FGF2 on morula and blastocyst yield did not different (P > 0.05) between treatment groups. However, the TCN of the blastocyst was slightly higher (P > 0.05) in the T3 group than the control and other groups. In subsequent trials, the expression of the FGF2 transcript was higher (P < 0.05) in A-grade of oocytes than the C- and D-grade of oocytes, but the expression was not different (P> 0.05) from the B-grade of oocytes. While the FGFR2 expression was higher (P < 0.05) in cumulus cells than any grades of oocytes. The relative abundance of FGF2 and FGFR2 transcripts was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the 2-cell stage of the embryo than the other stages of embryos. This study was further extended to characterize the FGF2 ligand-binding site in the D3 domain of the buffalo FGF2 receptor. Bioinformatics analysis showed that the bovine FGF2 ligand-binding site in the D3 domain of buffalo was different from the D3 domain of the cattle.

Propagation of goat putative spermatogonial stem cells under growth factors defined serum-free culture conditions.

In the present study, we used a serum-free culture media to propagate goat putative spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) and evaluated the effect of crucial growth factors on relative expression of some SSC markers and self-renewal related genes. The enriched SSCs were cultured on a homologous Sertoli cell feeder layer in KO-DMEM supplemented with 10% KOSR. Putative SSC colonies emerged between day 6 and 10 which were then characterized by the expression of numerous spermatogonial and pluripotency related markers. After 15 days of subculture, the relative mRNA expression study revealed that 40 ng/mL concentration of Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) upregulated the expression of BCL6B, ID4, PLZF, and UCHL1. Moreover, the supplementation of GDNF + bFGF up-regulated the expression of PLZF and BCL6B. UCHL1 expression was higher after addition of GDNF + LIF while, THY1 overexpressed in response to the addition of GDNF + CSF1. These results demonstrated that the goat SSCs were efficiently propagated using a KOSR based serum-free media and the growth factor supplementation markedly influences their gene expression profile.

RNA sequencing and transcriptome analysis of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) blastocysts produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer and in vitro fertilization.

Across farm animal species, the live birth rate obtained with somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) embryos is only <2% compared with >40% obtained with in vitro fertilization (IVF) embryos, primarily due to incomplete nuclear reprogramming which results in aberrant embryonic gene expression. We used RNA sequencing to compare the global transcriptome profile of SCNT and IVF buffalo blastocysts. SCNT blastocysts expressed 17,061 transcripts, of which 941 were unique whereas, IVF blastocysts expressed 17,303 transcripts, of which 1,183 were unique. At ≥2-folds change (p < .05), 331 transcripts were differentially expressed in the two groups among which, 19 were unique, 188 were downregulated and 143 were upregulated in SCNT compared with IVF blastocysts. Many genes affecting pluripotency, trophectoderm development, developmental regulation, and epigenetic modifications were upregulated in SCNT compared with IVF blastocysts. Among the four functional categories analyzed, epigenetic regulators were the most affected. Most of the WNT signaling pathway genes were upregulated whereas, the inhibitors of this pathway, such as DKK1, were downregulated in SCNT blastocysts, suggesting that this pathway is overexpressed in SCNT embryos. Gene Ontology analysis revealed that 25 biological processes, 20 molecular functions, and 24 cellular compartment categories were enriched in SCNT blastocysts. This data can help identify reprogramming errors for improving cloning efficiency.

Selection of Reference miRNAs for Relative Quantification in Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Blastocysts Produced by Hand-Made Cloning and In Vitro Fertilization.

Very low birth rate and a high incidence of abnormalities in offspring born from cloned embryos, which have limited the application of cloning technology on a wide scale, are believed to be because of incomplete or aberrant nuclear reprogramming. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are involved in regulating a wide range of biological processes including reprogramming and embryonic development. Selection of suitable reference miRNAs is critical for normalization of data for accurate relative quantification of miRNAs by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), which is currently the most widely used technique for quantifying miRNAs. This study was aimed at identification of reference miRNAs suitable for normalization of qRT-PCR data from blastocyst-stage buffalo embryos produced by handmade cloning and in vitro fertilization (IVF). RNA isolated from cloned and IVF blastocysts was subjected to next-generation sequencing based on which, 12 highly and most consistently expressed miRNAs, which included miR-92a, miR-423, miR-151, Let-7a, miR-103a, miR-93, miR-16b, miR-25, miR-30e, miR-101, miR-127, and miR-197, were selected as candidates for identification of suitable reference miRNAs using three statistical algorithms namely geNorm, NormFinder, and BestKeeper. Based on consensus of the three algorithms, the combination of miRNAs found to be suitable as reference miRNAs were miR-127 and miR-103 for IVF blastocysts; miR-92a and miR-103 for cloned blastocysts, and miR-103, miR-423, and miR-93 across both IVF and cloned blastocysts. The data of this study can be very useful in miRNA expression analysis of blastocyst-stage cloned and IVF embryos.

Optimization of Serum-Free Culture Conditions for Propagation of Putative Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Spermatogonial Stem Cells.

Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) self-renew and produce a large number of differentiated germ cells to maintain normal spermatogenesis. However, the growth factors crucial for SSC self-renewal and the mechanism underlying this process remain unclear. In the present study, a serum-free culture media was used to evaluate the effect of several growth factors on the expression of some SSC markers and self-renewal related genes. The putative SSCs were cultured on buffalo Sertoli cell feeder layer in KO-DMEM +10% KOSR. The colony formation was observed between 7 and 10 days. The putative SSC colonies also expressed markers specific for undifferentiated type A spermatogonia and pluripotency markers. After 15 days, relative mRNA expression study revealed that 20 ng/mL concentration of Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) upregulated the expression of PLZF, TAF4B, and THY1. Furthermore, supplementation of a combination of 20 ng/mL GDNF, 10 ng/mL basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), 1000 IU/mL leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), and 1 ng/mL colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) upregulated the expression of PLZF, TAF4B, BCL6B, and ID4 genes. These results demonstrated that our defined culture media in combination with GDNF, bFGF, LIF, and CSF1 well supported SSC self-renewal.

Supplementation of Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Fibroblast Growth Factor 2, and Epidermal Growth Factor Promotes Self-Renewal of Putative Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Spermatogonial Stem Cells by Upregulating the Expression of miR-20b, miR-21, and miR-106a.

In this study, we investigated the effect of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 2, and epidermal growth factor (EGF) on the expression of some self-renewal-related microRNAs (miRs) in putative buffalo spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs). The SSCs were cultured on a buffalo Sertoli cell feeder layer, colony formation was observed between 7 and 10 days. The SSC colonies expressed markers specific for undifferentiated type A spermatogonia and pluripotency markers. After 15 days of initial culture, the colonies were subcultured as treatment (supplemented with 20 ng mL-1 GDNF +10 ng mL-1 FGF2 + 10 ng mL-1 EGF) and control groups. The number and area of SSC colonies were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in the treatment group than in the control group. The relative abundance of miR-20b, miR-21, and miR-106a in SSCs supplemented with growth factors was significantly higher (p < 0.001) than that in the control. The results indicate that supplementation of SSC culture medium with growth factors (GDNF, FGF2, and EGF) may promote the expression of miR-20b, miR-21, and miR-106a, which is essential for self-renewal and maintenance of SSCs.

An update: Reproductive handmade cloning of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

The first birth of a cloned animal produced through the Handmade cloning (HMC) technique was reported more than 15 years ago in cattle. This method of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has subsequently been evolving as a much simpler alternative to the classical micromanipulator-based SCNT. Several farm animal species such as cattle, buffalo, pigs, sheep, and goats have been successfully cloned using HMC. In buffalo, HMC technique is now well established, and several births of cloned calves have been reported by us. Several factors such as source of somatic cells, quality of recipient oocytes, cell cycle stage prior to SCNT, electrofusion and culture conditions, and epigenetic status of somatic cells, have been optimized leading to the production of good quality cloned embryos. The preservation through cloning of proven breeding bulls that have died by producing live offspring using somatic cells isolated from frozen semen as donor cells and birth of a cloned calf from urine-derived cells are impressive examples of the success of HMC in buffalo. In conclusion, HMC is a valued reproductive technique in buffalo that offers the opportunity to make multiple copies of highly valuable animals, particularly proven breeding bulls. In this review, there is a discussion of the advancement of the HMC technique in buffalo and factors responsible for the efficient production of cloned embryos.

Buffalo SCNT embryos exhibit abnormal gene expression of ERK/MAPK pathway and DNA methylation.

Inhibition of ERK/MAPK pathway has been shown to decrease DNA methylation via down-regulation of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in several studies suggesting that this pathway plays an important role in regulation of DNA methylation. We examined the relative expression level of seven important genes related to ERK/MAPK pathway and DNMTs (DNMT1, DNMT3a and DNMT3b) by quantitative real-time PCR in buffalo blastocysts produced by Hand-made cloning and compared it with that in blastocyst-stage embryos produced by in vitro fertilization (IVF). The expression level of six of seven genes related to ERK/MAPK pathway examined i.e., p21RAS, RAF1, AKT1, ERK2, PIK3R2 and c-Myc was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in cloned than in IVF embryos. However, the expression level of FOS was lower (p < 0.005) in cloned than in IVF embryos. The relative expression level of DNMT3a and DNMT3b but not that of DNMT1 was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in cloned than in IVF embryos. These results indicate that the cloned embryos exhibit an abnormal expression of several important genes related to ERK/MAPK pathway and DNMTs. Although a direct link between ERK/MAPK pathway and DNMTs was not examined in the present study, it can be speculated that ERK/MAPK pathway may have a role in regulating the expression of DNMTs in embryos, as also observed in other tissues.

Cloning of Buffalo, a Highly Valued Livestock Species of South and Southeast Asia: Any Achievements?

Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a major source of milk, meat, and draught power in many developing countries in Asia. Animal cloning holds a lot of potential for fast multiplication of elite buffaloes and conservation of their valuable germplasm. Although the progress of buffalo cloning has been slow in comparison to cattle or pig, several breakthroughs were reported in buffalo cloning such as the production of cloned calves from somatic cells isolated from over one-decade old frozen-thawed semen or from urine-derived cells. Since the initiation of buffalo cloning, several approaches have been tried to refine nuclear transfer protocols. This has resulted in increasing the blastocyst production rate and improving their quality leading to an increase in live birth rate. In this review, we discuss current developments in buffalo cloning, its challenges, and the future roadmap.

Establishment, Growth, Proliferation, and Gene Expression of Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Transgenic Fetal Fibroblasts Containing Human Insulin Gene, and Production of Embryos by Handmade Cloning Using These Cells.

The aim of the present study was to compare transgenic cells, containing human insulin gene kept under the control of mammary gland-specific buffalo beta-lactoglobulin promoter, and their counterparts, that is, nontransgenic cells, for examining their potential for the production of embryos following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). The gene construct was delivered into buffalo fetal fibroblasts (BFF) by nucleofection following which, the transfected cells were selected by culture in the presence of G418 for 3 weeks. Transgene integration into BFF genome was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcriptase PCR. At passage 8-10, the growth rate, cell proliferation rate, and quantitative expression of certain genes were compared between transgenic and nontransgenic cells. The growth rate and cell proliferation rate was significantly lower (p < 0.05) for transgenic than for nontransgenic cells. Using quantitative real-time PCR it was found that the expression level of CASPASE 3, CASPASE 9, BAX, and P53 was significantly higher (p < 0.05) and that of HDAC1 and IGF-1R was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in transgenic compared with nontransgenic cells. The differences in the relative expression level of BCL-XL, MCL-1, DNMT1, DNMT3a, GDF9, FGF2, and G6PD between the two groups were not significant. Furthermore, when the two cell types were used as donor cells for production of embryos by handmade cloning, the blastocyst rate was significantly lower (p < 0.05) with transgenic (35.69% ± 1.78%) than with nontransgenic cells (48.75% ± 2.38%). In conclusion, these results indicate that differences were present between transgenic and nontransgenic cells, which may affect the efficiency of SCNT when used as donor cells.

Epigenetic Alteration of Donor Cells with Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor m-Carboxycinnamic Acid Bishydroxymide Improves the In Vitro Developmental Competence of Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Cloned Embryos.

Epigenetic reprogramming is an indispensable process during the course of mammalian development, but aberrant in cloned embryos. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of donor cell treatment with histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor m-carboxycinnamic acid bishydroxymide (CBHA) on cloned embryo development and establish its optimal concentration. Different concentrations of CBHA (2.5, 5.0, 10.0, and 20.0 µM) were used to treat buffalo adult fibroblast cells for 24 hours and effect on cell proliferation, gene expression, and histone modifications was analyzed. Based on these experiments, the best concentration was chosen to determine the effect of enhanced gene activation mark on developmental rates. Among the different concentrations, CBHA at higher concentration (20 µM) shows the sign of apoptosis and stress as indicated by proliferation rate and gene expression data. CBHA treatment significantly decreased the activity of HDACs and increased the level of gene activation mark H3K9ac and H3K4me3, but could not alter the level of H3K27ac. Based on these experiments, 5 µM CBHA was chosen for treatment of donor cells used for the production of cloned embryos. There was no significant difference in cleavage rate between the control and CBHA treatment group (98.5% ± 1.5% vs. 99.0% ± 1.0%), whereas, blastocyst rate markedly improved (46.65% ± 1.94% vs. 57.18% ± 2.68%). The level of H3K9ac and H3K27me3 did not differ significantly in cloned blastocyst produced from either control or CBHA-treated cells. Altogether, these results suggested that donor cell treatment with CBHA supports the reprogramming process and improves the cloned preimplantation development.

Selection of Suitable Internal Control Genes for Accurate Normalization of Real-Time Quantitative PCR Data of Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Blastocysts Produced by SCNT and IVF.

We evaluated the suitability of 10 candidate internal control genes (ICGs), belonging to different functional classes, namely ACTB, EEF1A1, GAPDH, HPRT1, HMBS, RPS15, RPS18, RPS23, SDHA, and UBC for normalizing the real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) data of blastocyst-stage buffalo embryos produced by hand-made cloning and in vitro fertilization (IVF). Total RNA was isolated from three pools, each of cloned and IVF blastocysts (n = 50/pool) for cDNA synthesis. Two different statistical algorithms geNorm and NormFinder were used for evaluating the stability of these genes. Based on gene stability measure (M value) and pairwise variation (V value), calculated by geNorm analysis, the most stable ICGs were RPS15, HPRT1, and ACTB for cloned blastocysts, HMBS, UBC, and HPRT1 for IVF blastocysts and RPS15, GAPDH, and HPRT1 for both the embryo types analyzed together. RPS18 was the least stable gene for both cloned and IVF blastocysts. Following NormFinder analysis, the order of stability was RPS15 = HPRT1>GAPDH for cloned blastocysts, HMBS = UBC>RPS23 for IVF blastocysts, and HPRT1>GAPDH>RPS15 for cloned and IVF blastocysts together. These results suggest that despite overlapping of the three most stable ICGs between cloned and IVF blastocysts, the panel of ICGs selected for normalization of qPCR data of cloned and IVF blastocyst-stage embryos should be different.

Retinoic acid induces differentiation of buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) embryonic stem cells into germ cells.

Development of precise and reproducible culture system for in vitro differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells into germ cells counts as a major leap forward for understanding not only the remarkable process of gametogenesis, otherwise obscured by limited availability of precursor primordial germ cells (PGCs), but in finally treating the catastrophic infertility. Taking into account the significant role of retinoic acid (RA) during in vivo gametogenesis, we designed the present study to investigate the effects of its stimulation on directing the differentiation of ES cells into germ cells. The effects of RA were analyzed across dose-and-time upon various stages of gametogenesis like PGC induction, meiosis initiation and completion, haploid cell formation and development of the final gamete (oocyte and spermatozoa). Out of the series of RA doses (2, 4, 8, 16, 20 and 30µM), 16µM RA for 8day culture interval was found to induce highest expression of PGC- and meiosis-associated genes like DAZL, VASA, SYCP3, MLH1, TNP1/2 and PRM2, while mature germ cell genes like BOULE and TEKT1 (Spermatocyte markers), GDF9 and ZP2 (Oocyte markers) showed higher expression at 2µM RA dose, suggesting functional concentration-gradient of RA activity. Immunocytochemistry revealed expression of germ lineage-specific markers like: c-KIT, DAZL and VASA (PGC-markers); SYCP3, MLH1 and PROTAMINE1 (Meiotic-markers); ACROSIN and HAPRIN (Spermatocyte-markers); and GDF9 and ZP4 (Oocyte-markers) in optimally differentiated embryoid bodies (EBs) and adherent cultures. We observed significantly reduced (p<0.05) concentration of 5-methyl-2-deoxycytidine in RA-differentiated EBs which is suggestive of the occurrence of methylation erasure. FACS analysis of optimally differentiated cultures detected 3.07% haploid cell population, indicating completion of meiosis. Oocyte-like structures (OLS) were obtained in adherent differentiated cultures. They had a big nucleus and a zona pellucida (ZP4) coat. They showed progression through 2-cell, 4-cell, 8-cell, morula and blastocyst-like structures upon extended culture beyond 14days.

An immunological approach of sperm sexing and different methods for identification of X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm.

Separation of X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm has been practiced for selection of desired sex of offspring to increase the profit in livestock industries. At present, fluorescence-activated cell sorter is the only successful method for separation of X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm. This technology is based on the differences in DNA content between these two types of sperm and has been commercialized for bovine sperm. However, this technology still has problems in terms of high economic cost, sperm damage, and lower pregnancy rates compared to unsorted semen. Therefore, an inexpensive, convenient, and non-invasive approach for sperm sexing would be of benefit to agricultural sector. Within this perspective, immunological sperm sexing method is one of the attractive choices to separate X- and Y-chromosome bearing sperm. This article reviews the current knowledge about immunological approaches, viz., H-Y antigen, sex-specific antigens, and differentially expressed proteins for sperm sexing. Moreover, this review also highlighted the different methods for identification of X- and Y-sperm.

Treatment of Donor Cells and Reconstructed Embryos with a Combination of Trichostatin-A and 5-aza-2'-Deoxycytidine Improves the Developmental Competence and Quality of Buffalo Embryos Produced by Handmade Cloning and Alters Their Epigenetic Status and Gene Expression.

The application of cloning technology on a large scale is limited by very low offspring rate primarily due to aberrant or incomplete epigenetic reprogramming. Trichostatin A (TSA), a histone deacetylase inhibitor, and 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (5-aza-dC), an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferases, are widely used for altering the epigenetic status of cloned embryos. We optimized the doses of these epigenetic modifiers for production of buffalo embryos by handmade cloning and examined whether combined treatment with these epigenetic modifiers offered any advantage over treatment with the individual epigenetic modifier. Irrespective of whether donor cells or reconstructed embryos or both were treated with 50 nM TSA +7.5 nM 5-aza-dC, (1) the blastocyst rate was significantly higher (71.6 ± 3.5, 68.3 ± 2.6, and 71.8 ± 2.4, respectively, vs. 43.1 ± 3.4 for controls, p < 0.05); (2) the apoptotic index was lower (5.4 ± 1.1, 9.5 ± 1.0, and 7.4 ± 1.3, respectively, vs. 19.5 ± 2.1 for controls, p < 0.05) and was similar to that of in vitro fertilization blastocysts (6.0 ± 0.8); (3) the global level of H3K18ac was higher (p < 0.01) and that of H3K27me3 lower (p < 0.05) than in controls and was similar among all treatment groups; and (4) the expression level of epigenetic-(HDAC1, DNMT1, and DNMT3a), pluripotency-(OCT4 and NANOG), and development-related (FGF4) genes, but not that of SOX2 and CDX2, was similar among all treatment groups. These results demonstrate that similar levels of beneficial effects can be obtained following treatment of either donor cells or reconstructed embryos or both with the combination of TSA +5-aza-dC. Therefore, there is no advantage in treating both donor cells and reconstructed embryos when the combination of TSA and 5-aza-dC is used.